Answer to exercise 1 (a) Kalala would probably use informa shi, especially If his parents were present.

If his brother was close in age and they got on well they would be likely to use indoubil to each other. If his brother was close in age and they got on well they would be likely to use indoubil to each other. If his brother was much younger he would not yet know much indoubil. (b) Indoubil, the language of peer-group friendship (c) This would depend on his assessment of what languages the stranger knew. He would probably use kingwana if he guessed the person lived in Bukavu, but standard Swahili if he thought they came from out of town. However, his assessment of the strangers social status, or the function of the interaction might also be relevant, discussed in the next section. Answer to exercise 3 (a) The domain based approach allows for only one choice of language per domain, namely the language used most of the time in that domain. Clearly more than one language may occur in any domain. Different people may use different languages in the same domain. We will see below that for a variety of reason (such as who they are talking to) the same person may also use different languages in the sam domain. Answer to exercise 3 (a) Oi Lins choices illustrate further factor which may influence code choice the particular addressee may influence code choice within a domain. She uses Singapore English to her sister and friends of the same age it is the code commonly used by young people to each other, partly because they use it so much at school, partly because they feel positive about it. She uses Cantonese to elderly vegetable sellers, perhaps because she wants to emphasise their comment ethnicity so they will feel well-disposed towards her and she may get a better bargain, perhaps also because she judges that Cantonese is the language they are most proficient in and she wants the exchange to be as comfortable as possible for them. A model which took account of these factor would be much more complicated than that illustrated above.

Answer to exercise 4 Figure 2.2 illustrates one way of representing language choice in Bukavu for kakala. (other arrangements of the relevant factors are also possible)

Close friends NO -

YES

indoubil

Fellow tribespeople YES NO YES NO Formal interactions

Formal occasions NO -

Formal shi YES Informal shi

Standard zairean swahili kingwana

Answer to exercise 5 H(igh) Variety H H H H H L(ow) variety

Religion (sermon, prayers) Literature(novels, non-fiction) Newspaper (editorial) Broadcasting : TV news Education (written material, lectures) Education (lesson discussion) Broadcasting : radio Shopping Gossip

L L L L

Answer to exercise 6 (A) (!) they are different varieties of the same language (!!) they are used in mutually exclusive situations. Where H is appropriate, L is not, and vice versa. H is used in more formal contexts and L in less formal contexts. (!!!) only L is used for conversation with family and friends (!V) L is learned naturally in the home. H is learned more formally-usually in school (V) this is a tricky question. In the usual sense of prestige-i.e. high status-the answer is H. however, people are often more attached to L emotionally. When people have this kind of fondness for a variety, the variety is sometimes described as having covert prestige (see chapter 14) (VI) H is generally codified in grammar books and dictionaries. More recently linguists have also begun to codify the L variety in some places such as Haiti. (VII) literature is usually written in H, but when the L variety begins to gain status people begin to use it to write in too Answer to exercise 6 (b) The use of ranamal and bokmal by members of the hemnesberget speech community qualifies as diglossic on all criteria. One apparent exception is the use of bokmal or standard Norwegian for everyday conversation to those from outside the village. To fellow villagers it would be considered snobbish, but it is normal outsiders. This simply emphasizes that the diglossic pattern applies to the hemnesberget speech community, and does not necessarily extend outside it. Note, however, that in a classic diglossic community, H would not generally be used comfortably for everyday conversation even to outsiders.

Answer to exercise 7 (a) Spanish Religion Literature (serious) guarani (magazines)

Schooling Broadcasting Shopping Gossiping

(e.g. farming)

Answer to exercise 7 (b) Yes, on the whole. In some domains, as discussed above, choice of language depends on factors such as the particular topic or function of the interaction. In rural areas lack of proficiency in Spanish may lead to the use of guarani in situations where Spanish would be appropriate in the town. Nevertheless in general people are clear that one code rather than the other is most appropriate in particular interactions. Answer to exercise 8 (a) From ranamal to bokmal because ranamal is the variety used for personal interactions while bokmal is appropriate for official transactions. (b) From their chinese dialect, to English because the topic of chinese food is appropriately discussed in Cantonese but the technical topic introduced is more easily discussed in English, the language in which they are studying. Answer to exercise 9 The use of little and full name (Mr Robert harris) rather than affectionate nickname (Robbie). The very full and formal construction with a subordinate clause (ifimmediately), preceding the main clause. The use of a distancing construction (there will be consequences which you will regret rather than, say, the more familiar youll be sorry). The use of relatively formal vocabulary (e.g. consequences, immediately rather than, say, right now, regret rather than be sorry).a