INT. J. CO MPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING, 1999, VO L. 12, NO .

4, 29 1 310

A fram e work for train in g worke rs in con te m porary m an ufacturin g e n viron m e n ts

ARUNKUMAR PENNATHUR, ANIL MITAL, VENKAT RAJA N, DAVID KABER, PAUL RAY, RONALD HUSTON, DAVID THOM PSON, GLENN M ARKLE, MARY ANNE PITMAN, RAM BISHU, LESIA CRUMPTON, SUBRAMANIAM DEIVANAYAGAM, JEFFREY FERNANDEZ, M ARTIN MCELWEE, MARK MCMULKIN and DILEEP SULE

Ab stract. Man ufacturing e xpe rime nts with full autom ation for m an ufacturin g of good s, de velope d, prom ote d and atte m pted in th e 1980s, have faile d for e con om ic an d tech nical reason s. It is now wide ly accepte d that hum ans are vital to efficient and effective op e ration of man ufacturin g proce sse s. Historically, hum an resou rces in m ost m anufacturing en vironm en ts have be e n m ism an age d, and wh ile the re h as be e n a virtual prolife ration of e nablin g te chn ologie s to supp ort m anufacturing system s, little atte ntion has be e n paid to in te gratin g human s in to such syste m s. Now that hum ans are be in g re introduce d in con te mporary m anufacturing syste m s, it is necessary to pay se rious atte ntion to th is m ost vital of all re source s. O ne of the m ost critical and pre ssing hum an re source m anage m e nt ne eds is the training of worke rs, at all leve ls ( line workers, m anage rs, e ngine e rs, etc.) in skills th ey nee d to m ake a m anufacturing organ ization com pe titive. In spite of th is pre ssing n ee d relatively little has be e n don e to de ve lop ge n e ric an d fundam e n tal m e th od s for train in g m an ufacturin g worke rs. Th is pape r revie ws training literature, ide ntifies re se arch de ficiencies, and propose s a fram e work for training worke rs in con te m porary m anufacturing en vironm ents.

1. In tro d u c tio n Th e 1980 s witn e sse d m an y scie n tific an d te chn ical con fe re n ce s prom otin g th e m e s such as `Factory of th e Future or `Ligh ts-out Factorie s ( Bu llinge r an d Warn e cke 198 5) . By th e late 1980s, it was ge ne rally acce pte d th at in th e future th e de m an d for m an ufacture d goods will be m e t by a sm all workforce ope ratin g a h igh ly m ode rn organ ization e m ployin g productive an d ad van ce d te ch nologie s ( O Brie n 1991 ) . The argu m e n t for in cre ase d autom ation has con tin ue d in the 199 0s. Th e e m phasis on im prove d industrial productivity at re duce d cost has prove d an othe r in ce ntive for lim iting in flue n ce in the de sign , de ve lop m e nt, an d im ple m e n tation of m an ufactu rin g syste m s ( O rpan a an d Lukka 1993) . Th e argu m e n t for e nh an ce d in dustrial productivity is base d on the followin g ( Mital an d An an d 19 92) : ( 1) ( 2) th e n e e d to e n h an ce th e stan dard of livin g th rough the cre ation of nation al we alth ; th e loss of global com pe titive n e ss, an d pre stige , due to th e inability to produce high quality products; fe ar of inte lle ctual stagn ation ; th e loss of cre ative e dge ; th e n e e d to re spon d to m arke t de m an ds quickly, an d th e ne e d to pre pare for m arke t an d te ch nological ch an ge s th at are occurring m ore fre que n tly than e ve r.

Au thors: Ar u n kum ar Pe n n ath u r an d An il Mital, In d u strial Eng in e e rin g , Unive rsity of Cin c in n ati, Cin cinn ati, O H 45221-0116, USA; Ve n kat Rajan, Je ffre y Fe rn an d e z an d Mark Mc Mu lkin , Dep artm e n t o f In d u strial an d Man u facturin g Engin e e rin g, Wic h ita State Unive rsity, Wic h ita, KS 67260-0035, USA; David Kaber, De partm e n t of In dustrial Engin e e rin g, Mississippi State Unive rsity, Missisip p i State , MS 39762, USA; Paul Ray, De p artm e n t of In dustrial En gin e e rin g, Un ive rsity of Alabam a-Tu sc aloosa, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0288, USA; Ron ald H u sto n an d David T h o m p so n , Me ch an ical En g in e e r in g , Unive rsity of Cin cinn ati, Cin cin n ati, O H 45221-00 72, USA; Glen n Markle an d Mary Ann e Pitm an , Colle ge of Education, Un iversity o f Cin cinn ati, Cin cinn ati, O H 45221-0002, USA; Ram Bishu , Dep artm e n t of In d ustrial an d Man u factu rin g System s Engin e e rin g, Unive rsity of Ne braska-Lin coln, Lin coln, NE 68588-0518, USA; Subram an iam Deivan ayagam , Dep artm e n t of In d ustrial Engin e e rin g, Ten n e sse e Tec h n ological Unive rsity, Cookville, TN 38505-5011, USA; Martin Mc Elwe e , Dire c to r o f Man u fac tu rin g , CINTAS, In c ., 68 00 Cin tas Blvd., Cin c in n ati, O H 45262, USA; Dile e p Sule, In d u strial Engin e e rin g, Louisian a Tech Unive rsity, Ruston, LA 71272, USA.

( 3) ( 4) ( 5) ( 6)

It h as be e n re ason e d by Mital ( 199 7) that in orde r to be n e fit from au tom ation , on e doe s n ot have to h ave

In tern ation al Jou rn al of Compu ter In tegrated Man u factu rin g ISSN 0951-192X prin t/ ISSN 1362-3052 online h ttp :/ / www.tan d f.co.uk/ JNLS/ cim .h tm h ttp:/ / www.tayloran d fran cis.com / JNLS/ cim .h tm

1999 Taylor & Francis Ltd

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A. Penn athu r e t al. e con om ically de sirable . For in stan ce , con side r th e case of asse m bly. Ne vin s an d Wh itn e y ( 1989) state that m an ual asse m bly is rap idly disappe arin g as an option for th e re ason s stated above . Th e issue of asse m bly e con om ics h as be e n e xam in e d by Mital et al. ( 19 88) , Mital an d Mah ajan ( 198 9) , Booth royd ( 199 0) , Mital ( 1991, 1992 ) , an d Ham m e r ( 1992) by com parin g h um an an d robot pe rform an ce s. Th e fin din gs cast con side rable doubt on th e be lie f th at au tom ate d asse m bly m e th ods will always be cost-e ffe ctive an d le ad to incre ase s in productivity. In fact, se ve ral c ase studie s from the se works in dic ate th at m an ual asse m bly is fre qu e n tly e con om ically m ore attractive . Th e e conom ic ad van tage s of one m e thod ove r th e oth e r are fun ctions of fac tors such as pe rform an ce tim e s, wage an d in te re st rate s, an d e quipm e nt re liability. In ge n e ral, the e conom ic disin ce n tive s of au tom ate d e quipm e n t ( or op tion ) are prim arily due to low re liability, h igh in tere st rate s, an d de clinin g low wage s. Th e ability of h um an s to le arn on the job also works again st th e au tom ate d option . Sh ould the se factors chan ge an d m ove in th e oth e r dire ction ( for e xam ple , with de clining in te re st rate s) , th e au tom ate d option could be com e e conom ically attractive . Th e pre ce din g argu m e n ts, th us, do n ot support th e ph ilosoph y th at au tom ation sh ould be use d to m inim ize hum an in terve ntion s be cause such a m ove m ay n ot have an y e con om ic viability. Howe ve r, if it is de te rm in e d th at h um an inte rve ntions will be e con om ically be n e ficial, autom ation sh ould be used to he lp th e worke rs do th e ir job m ore e fficie n tly. Th is would e n sure that th e m an ufacturing e n te rprise is in de e d producin g the be st product possible ; a product th e m arke t ne e ds an d a product that is e asy to m an ufacture quickly, re liably, an d e con om ically. From a cybe rn e tics vie wp oint it also ap pe ars th at com ple te au tom ation will be a suboptim al solution for m an ufacturing organ ization s, at le ast for th e forse e able future , wh e n com pare d with solutions th at in volve hum an s, m ach in e s, an d com pute rs in an e ffe ctive partn e rsh ip ( h yb rid syste m s) . Th e im p ortan c e of pe ople as com pone n ts for con trol an d in novation in m an ufacturing syste m s is re cogn ize d worldwid e ( Brodne r 1985 , 1987; Koh le r 198 8; Ke arn e y 1989; Hockley 1990; Gill 19 90; Corbe tt et al. 1991; Gran t et al. 1991; Se ne hi et al. 199 1; Non aka 1991; Ham m e r 1992; Kidd 1992; Wobbe 1992) . Th e cybe rn e tics case h as be e n studie d by Mital et al. ( 1994 b) an d is sum m arize d as follows; the Law of Re quisite Varie ty state s that for an y syste m to re m ain un de r con trol, the con trolle r of th at system m ust be able to absorb th e e n tire ran ge of in puts th at m ay affe ct the syste m ( i.e . the syste m or th e con trol proce ss m ust be at le ast as com ple x in its be h avior as the syste m it is tryin g to control) . Give n that a m an ufacturin g organ i-

com ple te or total au tom atio n . Rath e r, au tom ation sh ould be use d to in cre ase th e e fficie n cy an d e ffective n e ss of a m an ufac tu r in g e n te rp rise th rou gh th e in tegration an d e xploitation of availab le te ch nology. As suc h , it n ot on ly in vo lve s in te gratio n of CIM te ch n ologie s ( CAD, CAM, CAPP, CAQ , e tc.) , but also re quire s ch an ge s in m an age m e nt th in king an d organ ization al structure . Th e th in kin g of the 1980 s m an age m e nt th at `h um an influe n ce in CIM can be com ple te ly e lim inate d n e e d s to be e xam in e d by askin g an d an swe rin g que stion s such as `Can au tom ation be im ple m e nte d to an e xte n t th at th e re is ve ry lim ited or n o role for hum an s to play in m ode rn m an ufac turin g? ( In oth e r words, `Is total au tom ation fe asible ? ) an d `Can an e ffe ctive inte gration of m od e rn m an ufacturin g te ch nologie s an d in form ation be achie ve d without h um an s? It is be lie ve d by m an y that h um an s have gre at difficulty in provid in g th e re quire d quality, uniform ity, re liability, re pe atability, an d docum e ntation ne e de d in m ode rn m an ufacturin g. Th e re fore , th e m an ual alte rnative in m an ufacturing is n ot a fe asible option ( Sata 1986 ) . Accordin g to the se in divid uals, all m an ufac turin g activities, such as m e tal cuttin g, m ate rials h an dlin g, asse m bly, in spe ction , an d tran sportation , wh ich are routin e ly h an dle d by pe ople , m ust be pe rform e d by com puter-con trolle d m ach in e s. Th e re ality is th at fully au tom ate d fac torie s base d on h ard au tom ation are n ot viable for te ch nical an d e con om ic re asons e xce pt in a fe w spe cial an d isolate d case s ( Y ash ita 19 87) . Hard am au tom ation doe s not le nd itself to situation s wh e re a product is to be ch an ge d fre que n tly be cau se of user ne e ds, costs or e n gin e e ring im prove m e n ts ( Hartle y 1984 ) . Furthe rm ore , th e re is the n e e d to provid e flexibility as we ll as cap ability. Au tom ate d e quipm e nt, such as robots, provid e th e fle xibility but n ot th e cap ability. For robots to be cap able , th e y m ust have th e ne ce ssary in te llige n ce ( Brad y et al. 198 4) an d m ust be able to sen se th e working situation to see , touch , fe e l pre ssure , an d se nse the ir own m ove m e n t; ac quire kn owle dge an d jud ge m e n t to c arry ou t th e task prope rly an d ac t accordin g to the knowh ow of th e skille d worke r ( for e xam ple , acce pt parts th at m ay n ot have e xac t tole ran ce , or are not prop e rly orie nte d) ; pe rform tasks re liab ly to im part th e ne ce ssary 3-D m otion s to th e product; an d com m unicate with th e ope rator by voice , writte n se n te n ce s, an d oth e r ap propriate form s of com m un icatio n ( Yam ash ita 1987 ) . Cu rre n tly, h um an s m ust e ithe r work with robots or supe rvise th e m an d m ust inte rve n e wh e n proble m s de ve lop ( for e xam ple , wh e n the robot drops a part) . Ec on om ic viab ility is also ne ce ssary if com ple te au tom ation is to be com e feasible . It is ve ry like ly th at au tom ation , wh ile te ch n ically fe asible m ay n ot be

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g zation is an ope n system , th at is affe cted by its ph ysical, com m e rcial, le gal an d social e nviron m e n t as we ll as its own e nviron m e nt, th e control subsyste m m ust be able to re m ain in a stable state . Q uite ap art from th e n ature of su c h in p u ts ( m ost of wh ic h e xist in h u m an com patible form , but m an y of wh ich could be m ad e com pute r-com patib le ) , the re is the con te nt of th is input. Within the organ ization , th e de cision s to be m ad e vary in im portance , an d he n ce the typ e of inform ation re quire d for de cision-m akin g also var ie s. Th e in form ation con ten t varie s from ve ry low le ve l of de tail ( for e xam ple , `Th e tool h as e ngage d the workpie ce ) to be ve ry h igh le ve l of de tail ( for e xam ple , `Th e re ce nt gove rn m e n t le gislation carrie s th e followin g im plications ) . It is difficult to see h ow an y au tom ate d syste m could de al with h igh le ve l in form ation of th e latter sort, an d m ake the ne ce ssary de duction s an d oth e r in fe re n ce s with out an e n orm ous inve stm e n t in backgroun d knowle dge store s. Furth e rm ore , th e un e xpe cte d n atu re of som e of the in puts ( `Be h old, a hurrican e has blown th e roof in ) will re quire h um an like in te llige n t con trol proc e dure s ( unlike ly to be availab le in the forse e ab le future ) to be ge n e rate d from au tom ate d system s. Se condly, the re are the system im prove m e n t, syste m m on itoring, an d m ain ten an ce role s to be pe rform e d with in m an ufacturing un its. Again , th e se role s re quire hum an -type in tellige n ce , an d fre que n tly gre at m an ipulative skills for th e ir pe rform an ce . It is difficult to se e how such role s could be pe rform e d au tom atically. It sh ould be e vid e n t, th e re fore , th at pe ople will be ne ce ssary in m an ufacturin g plan ts for a lon g tim e to com e an d we m ust m an ag e this im portan t re source ve ry care fully.

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1.1. Man agemen t of hu man resou rces Give n th e im portan c e of pe rson n e l to m an ufac turin g, it is in d e e d un for tun ate to fin d th at m an y c om pan ie s h ave faile d to p rop e r ly c u ltivate th is im portan t re sour ce . In fact, th e failu re of m an y com pan ie s in tran sition to m ode rn com pe titive m an ufac tur in g organ izatio n s is p rim ar ily d u e to th e ir m ism an ag e m e n t of h um an re sourc e s ( Ettlie 198 8, Majch rzak 1988) . For e xam ple , in ste ad of m akin g th e e n tire m an ufacturing ope ration e fficie n t by utilizin g pe ople an d othe r re source s e ffe ctive ly, m an y com pan ie s have ach ie ve d sh ort-term productivity gain s by layin g off worke rs. Th is has be e n done tim e an d again with out an y re gar d for worke r we lfare or con side ration of lon gterm con seque n ce s on the local, re gion al or n ation al e con om y. Spe cifically, m an y organ izations have faile d to upgrade worke r skills to le ve ls com patible with

ad van ce d m an ufac turin g te ch n ologie s ( Bu te ra an d Thurm an 1984 , Ge rwin an d Taron de au 1982, Sh aike n 1984, Kin g an d Majchrzak 19 96) . Th e workers, th us, h ave be e n le ft with fe we r care e r option s an d lim ite d e c on om ic op p ortu n itie s. It h as be e n sh own th at variab le s such as com pre h e nsive train in g are e sse ntial to h um an re source m an ag e m e n t practice s, particularly in advan ce d m an ufacturing e n viron m e nts ( Walton an d Susm an 1987, Com m ission on th e Skills of th e Am e rican Workforce 199 0, Hitt et al. 1991 , Perry 1991, Sne ll an d De an 1991 ) . Still, re lative ly fe w Am e rican in dustry workers re ce ive trainin g ( if worke rs do re ce ive trainin g, th e train ing budge t is on e of th e first item s to be cut wh e n au ste rity m e asu re s are e ffe ctive ) . A surve y of au to worke rs at a Ge n e ral Motors asse m bly plan t re ve ale d th at le ss th an 20% of production worke rs re ce ive d te ch n ical train in g, alth ou gh n e arly 83% re ce ive d som e form of train ing. A surve y of con tract labor in th e US pe tro-che m ical in dustry by th e Joh n Gray Institute ( 1991) re ve ale d th at le ss th an 33% of wo rke rs re ce ive d c om p an y train in g up on e n te rin g th e in dustry. Furth e rm ore , 20% of th is sam e labor force re porte d re ce ivin g n o on-goin g train ing th roughout th e ir e m ploym e n t. It is also known th at th e am oun t of train in g is a fun ction of profe ssional position , with m an age rs re c e ivin g far m ore train in g th an line workers ( Carne vale 1991) , profe ssion al association s/ status un ion lab or re ce ivin g sign ifican tly gre ate r train ing th an n on-un ion labor ( Joh n Gray In stitute 19 91 ) , an d dire ct-h ire s re ce ivin g double th e le ve l of on -goin g train in g as c on trac t lab or ( Joh n Gray In stitu te 19 91 ) . It is im p ortan t to n ote th at Jap an , an e con om ic gian t se con d on ly to the Un ite d State s, spe n ds con side rable tim e an d e ffort in in -de pth train in g of its worke rs in a var ie ty of skills ( Mu ram atsu et al. 1987) . Su ch a ph ilosoph y is rare ly se e n in in dustry in th e Un ite d States, e xce ption s are plan ts usin g Jap an e se m an age m e nt tech n ique s. Also of con side rable im portan c e is th e fact that worke rs, in the pre sen t atm osph e re of down sizing, n e e d to be train e d in a varie ty of skills to im prove th e ir ch an ce s of re gain ing m e an in gfu l e m ploym e nt. Th e n e e d for such train in g has be e n re porte d in a study of worke rs at Toyota ( Mu ram atsu et al. 1987) . A n um be r of in ve stigators have sh own that worke r skill le ve ls are a dire ct de term inan t of le ve ls of quality pe rform an ce ( Flyn n et al. 1995 , Hackm an an d Wage m an 19 95) . It is also re ason able to sugge st th at in ve stm e n ts in h um an re source s should ke e p pace with th e ch an gin g te ch n ology particularly if th e workers are to take re spon sibility for qu ality, productivity, an d c ustom e rs ( Majc h rzak an d Wan g 199 6) . Am e rican in dustry train ing program s provid e in ad e quate train ing for succe ss in conte m porary m an ufacturin g, an d also

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A. Penn athu r e t al. ( 5) Te c hn ology, includin g com pe te n ce in sele ctin g an d usin g ap propriate te chn ology for a job, visu alizin g ope rations, an d m onitoring, m ain tain in g an d trouble -sh ootin g of com ple x e quipm e n t.

th e y are ge n e rally n ot lin ke d to p rodu ct de sign s ( de te rm in in g th e m an ufacturing tech n ologie s an d skills ne ce ssary to produce a quality product) . With out such lin kage , it is n ot possible to optim ize worke r an d, con se que n tly, organ ization al productivity an d product quality. Suc h a lin kage will also assist in e valuatin g ne e ds for updatin g an d m ode rnizin g worke r skills.

1.2. Human resou rce man agemen t option s O ptim al utilization of hum an re source s re quire s th at workers will posse ss th e skills re quire d to use th e te ch n ology e ffective ly. As discusse d above , Am e rican workers are n ot ge ttin g ad e quate train in g to de ve lop th e ne ce ssary skills. More ove r, m an y worke rs do n ot e ve n h ave th e skills n e e de d to m ake an e ffe ctive use of availab le te chn ology, particularly com pute r-base d te ch nology. According to the re port of th e Com m ission on th e Skills of th e Am e rican Workforce ( 199 0) , th e re is `conside rable e vid e n ce that the curre n t skill le ve l of th e in dustrial workforce le ave s th e Un ited States le ss able to de rive com pe titive ad van tage from ne w te ch nologie s th an our com pe titors . According to Ad le r ( 19 91) , th e re is a ge n e ral tre nd towards h igh e r skill re quire m e n ts am ong m an ufac turing worke rs due to th e spe e d of the autom ate d e quipm e nt. Th e ration ale for acquirin g spe cialize d m ain ten an ce skills is e qually pe rsuasive ( Bu sh n e ll 1983 ) . At the ve ry le ast, the re is a pe rce ive d ne e d for an in cre ase in basic skills in m ath e m atics, an d ve rbal an d writte n com m u nication am on g worke rs ( Jacobs 19 94) . Th e se ge n e ral fin din gs are in agre e m e n t with surve ys con ducte d by th e Un ited State s De partm e n t of Labor ( 1993 a, b) , an d Joh n ston an d Packer ( 1987 ) . According to the Un ite d States De partm e nt of Lab or surve y ( 19 93 a) , in dicatio n s are th at future workers in m an ufacturin g will n e e d e xce ption al pe rform an ce in th e followin g five com pe te ncie s. ( 1) ( 2) ( 3) Man agin g re source s. In te rpe rson al skills for te am proble m -solvin g. In form ation scie n ce , includin g ide n tification, in te gratio n , assim ilation , an d stor ag e an d re trie val of in form ation from diffe re n t source s; pre paration , m ain ten an ce an d in terpre tation of quan titative an d qualitative re cords; th e con ve rsion of in form ation from on e form to an oth e r an d the com m unication of in form ation in oral an d writte n form s. Syste m s, inclu din g un de rstandin g th e in te rcon n e ction s be twe e n syste m s, ide n tifying an om al ie s in syste m p e r fo r m an c e , in te g r ati n g m ultiple displays of data an d lin kin g sym bols with re al ph e nom e n a.

Train ing of worke rs to acquire such skills is th e re fore critical if th e Am e rican m an ufac turing organ izations are to re m ain globally com pe titive . Re cogn izing this fact, a re c e n t workshop sponsore d by th e National Scie nce Foundation re com m e nde d th at train in g issue s in advan ce d m an ufac turin g ( that is inve stigating an d e stablishin g skills ne e de d for future te ch nology, de ve lopin g te ch n ique s for asse ssin g trainin g ne e ds, de ve lopi n g p r o c e d u r e s fo r e va l u a ti n g c r o s s -tr a i n i n g e ffe ctive ne ss, an d de ve loping inte ractive train in g system s) have an im m e diate an d spe cial role to play in pre parin g th e Am e rican workforce for global com pe tition be yon d th e ye ar 2000 ( Mital 1995 , 199 6) .

1.3. Objectiv e an d scope of this work Th e obje ctive s of th is pap e r are to: ( 1) re vie w publish e d train in g lite ratu re , ( 2) ide n tify re se arch de ficie n cie s in industrial worker train in g are a, an d ( 3) propose a ge n e ric fram e work for train ing in dustrial worke rs. Th e discussion is lim ite d to an d is in th e conte xt of product m an ufacturing. Th e e m ph asis is on de ve loping a train ing proce ss fram e work that would allow wo rke r s in m an ufac tur in g org an ization s to acquire skills n e e de d to h arn e ss th e late st te ch nology.

2. Train in g

p e rsp e ctive an d sign ifican ce

( 4)

In dustrial psych ology lite ratu re d e fin e s train in g from train e e an d traine r pe rspe ctive s. From a train e e pe rspe ctive , train ing is `. . . the syste m atic acquisition of skills, ru le s, con c e p ts, or attitu de s th at r e su lt in im prove d pe rform an ce in an oth e r e n viron m e n t . . . an d wh ose e ffe ctive ne ss `. . . stem s from a le arning atm osph e re syste m atically de sign e d to produce chan ge s in th e workin g e n viron m e nt ( Goldste in 198 6) . From a train e r s pe rspe ctive , in cludin g th e organ ization provid ing th e train in g, train in g is `. . . a plan n e d e ffort by an organ ization to facilitate th e le arn in g of job-re late d be h avior on the part of its e m ploye e s . . . ; th e te rm `be h avior inclu de s kn owle dge an d skills acquire d by the e m ploye e th rough practice ( We xle y 198 4) . Train ing as an activity was form ally re cognized as e arly as th e In dustrial Re volu tion. Th e spurt of in dustrial activity, howe ve r, did noth ing to support workforce train in g, partly due to the fact that m ach in e s we re con side re d far

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g m ore e fficie n t th an th e worke rs at the tim e , an d partly due to th e social le gislation th at e xiste d in th e 18th an d 19th ce n turie s in En glan d ( Down s 1983) . Eve n toward s the e nd of the late 19th ce ntury, in dustrie s con side re d train in g worke rs a waste of re source s. Fre de rick Taylo r ( 191 1) chan ge d attitude s toward s worker train in g with his scie ntific m an age m e n t m e th ods; he ad vocate d th e se le c tion of th e be st wo rke r s for d iffe re n t tasks, followe d by e xte n sive train in g for such tasks. Th e two World Wars prom ote d system atic train in g an d se le ction of pe rsonn e l for th e wars. Subse que n tly, th e Un ite d Kin gd om prom ulgate d the In dustrial Train in g Acts of 1964 an d 1973. Train in g was, th us, form ally re cogn ize d as an im portan t activity ( Lath am 1988) . In the Un ite d States, Fe de ral le gislation suc h as th e Are a Re de ve lopm e n t Act of 1961 , the Man powe r De ve lopm e n t an d Train ing Act of 1962, the Vo cational Ed ucation Act of 1963 , an d th e Econ om ic O pportun ity Act of 1964 re cogn ize d th e im portan ce of train ing the workforce for im provin g the e con om ic ch oice s of the worke rs ( Walsh 1967 ) . Title VII of th e 19 64 US Civil Rig hts Act re sulte d in conside ration of train in g an d train in g be n e fits as e m ploym e nt de cision s. Ac cordin g to Lath am ( 198 8) an d Me alie a an d Duffy ( 1985) , e m ploye rs in th e Unite d State s h ave , by an d large , pursue d a train in g ph ilosoph y ( organ ization ide ntifie s the de ficie n cie s in worke rs an d train s th e m to im prove pe rform an ce ) , rath e r th an a se le c tion p h ilosop h y ( organ ization ide n tifies in divid uals with stron g pote n tial an d pre pare s the m for positions in wh ich the y are e xpe cte d to ad van ce ) . Th e pursuit of a `train in g ph ilosoph y , as oppose d to a `se le ction ph ilosoph y , an d the e m ph asis towards train in g as a tool to facilitate e m ploye e le arn in g is re flecte d in McGe he e an d Th aye r s ( 19 61) de finition of train in g. Accordin g to McGe h e e an d Th aye r, `. . . train in g in in dustry is th e form al proce dure s wh ich a com pan y use s to facilitate e m ploye e s le arnin g so th at the ir re sultan t be havior con tributes to th e attain m e n t of the com pan y s goals an d obje ctive s. In th e e ve n t train in g is use d as an e m ploye e se le ction tool, th e Un ite d State s case law re quire s th at p e rform an ce durin g train in g corre late s sign ifican tly with job pe rform an ce ( Lath am 1988) . Train in g program s are now conside re d vital instruc tional syste m s th at m e e t spe cific le arnin g an d be h avior n e e d s of the wo rkforce .

295

2.1. Why train in g? Th e re are som e basic que stions, such as `Why train in g? an d `Doe s train ing h ave an y pe rform an ce be n e fits? , th at one n e e d s to ad dre ss. Train in g th e workforce h as two im portan t e con om ic ad van tage s: it provid e s workers job option s an d ch oice s, an d pote n -

tial for highe r e arn in gs, an d it le ads to an ove rall im prove m e n t in an organ ization s pe rform an ce an d, con se que n tly, its productivity. Ne arly half of a worke r s life tim e e arn in gs are affe c te d by train in g in school an d on the job. Le arn in g occupation al skills in school h as a con side rable in flue n ce on a pe rson s e arn in gs. For in stan ce , according to th e US De partm e n t of Ed ucation , in 1985 colle ge grad uate s we re e arn in g 38% m ore th an h igh school graduate s ( Carne vale an d Goldste in 1990) . Th e e arn in g poten tial for colle ge gradu ate s is con side rably gre ate r in te ch nology-in te n sive in dustrie s su c h as m an u fac tu r in g. In ge n e ral, h igh sch ool graduate s in h igh-te ch nology in dustrie s e arn m ore th an twice as m uch as a h igh sch ool drop-out; colle ge grad uate s e arn m ore th an twice th at of a high school grad uate ; an d worke rs with post-gradu ate e ducation e arn m ore th an 30% th at of a c olle ge grad uate ( Carn e vale an d Goldstein 1990 ) . Le arn in g workplace skills on the job h as also be e n shown to positive ly affe ct e arn ing rate s ( ne arly 25 % in cre ase in e arn ings in som e case s) of workers ( Carne vale an d Goldste in 1990 ) . For a worker, train in g an d le arn in g on th e job also h ave con se que n ce s be yon d the curre n t job. Accordin g to th e studie s done by Lillard an d Tan ( 1986) , th e positive e ffe ct of workplac e train in g lasts lon ge r ( alm ost 13 ye ars com pare d to train in g in sch ool lastin g on ly 8 ye ars) an d re sults in incre ase d e arn in gs at n e w jobs wh e n train ing is don e in prior jobs. Worke r train ing h as also be e n sh own to im prove th e prod uctivity an d the quality of goods produce d. A 1991 study of form al train in g program s in 180 m an ufacturing firm s in the Unite d State s, con ducte d by th e Un ite d States De partm e n t of Labor, in dicate d that in dustrie s th at introduce d a form al train in g program afte r 1983 e xp e rie nce d at le ast a 17% incre ase in productivity in 3 ye ars th an in dustrie s th at did n ot in troduce a train ing program . This in cre ase was n e arly 20% for production workers. An oth e r surve y of 157 sm all ( 50 0 or fe we r e m p loye e s) m an ufac tu rin g in d ustrie s in Mic h igan foun d th at the re je ct rate of fin ishe d products h ad sign ifican tly droppe d afte r th e in troduction of form al worker train in g ( ne arly a 7% re duction in scrap by in cre asin g form al train in g from 15 hours to 30 hours) ( US De partm e n t of Labor 1993 b) . In a 199 2 Massach use tts In stitute of Te ch n ology study in 62 au tom obile p lan ts, re pre se n tin g 24 p roduce rs in 16 coun trie s ( m ulti-skilled e m ploye e s in plan ts with fle xib le production ope ration s) , e m ploye e train ing in fle xible production system s com pare d to m ass production syste m s, re duce d scrap an d im prove d th e quality of prod ucts. Th e re is now a ge n e ral conse nsus am on g in dustrie s, m an y Fe de ral gove rnm e n t age nc ie s, re se arch e rs in ac ad e m ia, an d in d u strial p rac tition e r s th at for a m an ufacturin g e n tity to be com pe titive in th e global

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A. Penn athu r e t al. m e ntal con strain ts. Wh e n th e goals of an organ ization ar e in c om p atib le with th e goals of th e train in g program , traine e s are le ft with knowle dge , skills, an d abilitie s ( KSA) that are n ot usable on the job. Train in g program s, th e re fore , m ust focus on te achin g te ch n ique s an d m e thods that are con siste nt with organ izational practice s ( Sonn e n feld an d Pe ipe rl 1988 , Schule r an d Jac kson 198 7, Carn e vale an d Goldste in 199 0, Carn e vale an d Sch ulz 199 0, Rosow an d Zage r 1988) . Wh ile suc h an alyse s are organ ization -spe c ific, th e lite rature provid e s som e ge n e ral gu ide lin e s ( Goldste in 1986) : ( 1) spe cific goals for th e organ ization n e e d to be cle arly de fin e d an d tran slate d into spe cific goals for th e train ing program s; organ ization s should n ot e xp e ct train ing program s to de live r un spe cifie d an d un ide n tifie d organ ization al goals; train in g program s sh ould con side r the train e e as an in divid ual with social n e e d s.

m arket, th e de ve lopm e n t of th e h um an re source s base in m an ufacturin g is critical ( Re port of th e Pre side n t s Com m ission on In dustrial Com p e titive n e ss 1985, Nation al Acad e m y of En gin e e ring 1988 , Nation al Re se arch Council 19 90) . In fact, m an y of th e se re ports high ligh t th e fact th at, am on g countrie s with large m an ufac turin g base s, th e Unite d State s no lon ge r dom in ate s in th e c re ation of n e w an d ad van c e d te ch n ology, an d that m an y coun trie s n ow have th e scie n tific an d te ch nological in frastructure to cre ate ne w te ch n ology. Wh at the n m ust m ake a positive diffe re n ce to US in dustrial com pe titive n e ss, th e se re ports con clude , is the e xiste n ce an d th e con tinue d de ve lopm e n t of a skille d h um an re source s base . Th e train in g of workers to acquire skills n e ce ssary to use th e late st te ch n ology e ffe ctive ly is thus a dire ne e d.

( 2) 3. Su m m ary o f train in g re se arch ( 3) In orde r to de ve lop a com ple te un de rstan din g of worke r train in g, it is e sse ntial to re vie w th e orie s de alin g with le arn in g, factors affecting le arn in g, an d the m e th ods of le arn in g / train in g th at have be e n de scribe d in th e publish e d lite rature . It should be note d that, with out e xce ption , m ate rials re late d to th e se asp e cts of train ing are found in be havioural, social, an d psychological lite ratu re . Th e re vie w of th is lite rature is pe rtin e nt if th e le ssons le arn e d e lse wh e re ar e to be ap p lie d suc c e ssfu lly in m an u fac tu rin g se ttin gs.

3.1. Train in g n eeds assessmen t Th e syste m s approac h to train in g include s a `n e e ds asse ssm e n t ph ase . Nee ds asse ssm e n t is a com ple te an alysis of th e tasks, be h aviors an d th e e n viron m e nt in wh ich train ing is to take place . The obje ctive s of th e train in g p rogr am , th e c rite r ia an d m e asu re s for e valu ation of th e trainin g program , an d the de sign of th e train in g program are de pe nde n t upon a soun d asse ssm e n t of th e n e e ds. Tr ain in g an alysts h ave tradition ally use d organ ization al an alysis, task an alysis an d pe rson an alysis as th e ste ps toward s obtain in g th e ne e ds profile for a train in g situation ( McGeh e e an d Th aye r 196 1) . O rgan ization al an alysis re fe rs to an e xam in ation of th e syste m -wide com pon e n ts of th e organ ization th at m ay affe c t a train in g program s factors be yon d th ose ordin arily conside re d in task an d pe rson an alysis ( Goldste in 1986 , 1991) . In clude d in organ ization al an alysis are such factors as th e e xam in ation of organ izational goals, organ izational re source s, clim ate for trainin g, an d in ternal an d e xte rnal e nviron -

Th e organ izational clim ate for training is de te rm in e d with a vie w to re solvin g an y pote n tial con flicts am ong m e m be r groups in th e organ ization ( Rou illie r an d Goldstein 199 1) . Som e possible m e m be r groups include gove rn m e n t spon sors of the train ing program , e m ploye rs, train ing de partm e nts, an d worke r union s. Pe rhaps th e m ost im portan t factor affe cting organ izational an alyse s is the ide n tification of th e e xte rn al fac tors th at in flue n ce train in g de sign . Th e se m ay include social ( for e xam ple , use of social le arning the ory for cross-cu ltural train in g ( Black an d Me nde n hall 1990) , le gal, e con om ic, an d political factors. In th e conte xt of our discussion , rap id ad van ce s in m an ufac turing te ch nology is one crucial e xte rn al factor th at affe cts train in g n e e ds of the organ ization, an d also has a dire ct be arin g on th e e con om ics of de cision m akin g. Th e literature on train in g falls sh ort of sugge stin g m e th ods to pe rform organ ization al an alyse s wh e n tech n ological ch an ge s affe ctin g organ izational train ing re quire m e n ts are e xp e cte d. An an alysis of the hum an an d physical re source s availab le is an oth e r im portan t factor to be con side re d durin g organ ization al an alysis. Table 1 pre se n ts a sam ple re sou rce an alysis in ve n tory ( McGe h e e an d Th aye r 1961 ) . Th e ne xt ste p in n e e ds asse ssm e n t is task an alysis wh ich re sults in a state m e n t of work activitie s pe rform e d on the job an d th e condition s un de r wh ich th e job is pe rform e d. A task de scription, followe d by a de taile d spe cification of th e tasks, an d a scalin g of tasks on various dim e nsion s, such as criticality an d fre que ncy of occurre nc e , m ake up the steps in task an alysis.

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g

Table 1. Sam ple h um an re source s inventory ( McGe hee and Th ayer 1961) . Table 2. Esse ntial activities of a job.

297

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o.

Num be r of em ployee s in the job classification Num be r of em ployee s ne e de d in the job classification Age of e ach em ploye e in the job classification Le ve l of skill re qu ired by th e job of e ach e mploye e Le ve l of kn owle dge require d by the job of each e m ploye e Attitude of e ach em ploye e toward job and com pan y Le ve l of job perform ance , qu ality an d quan tity, of e ach e m ploye e Le ve l of skills an d kn owle dge of e ach e m ploye e for othe r jobs Pote n tial replacem e nts for this job ou tside com pan y Pote n tial replacem e nts for this job within com pan y Training tim e re qu ire d for pote ntial re place m e nts Training tim e re qu ire d for a novice Rate of absen te e ism from this job Turn ove r in th is job for spe cifie d pe riod of tim e Job specification for the job

a. Th e worke r s actions. b. Th e obje ctive or purpose ( wh at ge ts don e as a result of worke rs actions) . c. Th e m achine s, tools, e quip me nt, and work aids ( MTEWA) use d to attain an obje ctive or pe rform a worke r action. d. Th e m ate rials, products, subject m atte r, and se rvice s ( ne ce ssary to place the job in its ge neral occupational are a and to con tribute to an unde rstanding of the basic kn owledge require d) . e . Th e work perform e d and worker characte ristic ratings including inform ation on worker re lation ship to data, pe ople , an d things, worke r function s, work fie lds ( spe cific m ethods characteristic of MTEWA) , and worke r characteristics ( physical de mands, e nvironm en tal con ditions, tem pe ram en ts, and aptitudes) . f. Criteria for acce ptable work ( job standards or m easures for acceptable work pe rformance) ( US Departm e nt of Labor 1991) .

Th e task de scription , according to Th e Re vise d Han dbook for An alyzin g Jobs ( US Departm e n t of Labor 1991 ) , is a statem e n t th at de scribe s all th e e sse ntial activities of a job ( table 2) . A com ple te spe cification of the task follows its de scription . Inform ation for com ple te spe cification of a task involve d in a job is typ ically obtaine d from e xp e rts, or by observin g th e job be in g pe rform e d. A n um be r of rule s for task spe cification have e volve d ove r th e ye ars an d in clude dire ction s on the gram m ar, sen te n ce structure , an d th e lan guage of the an alyst US De partm e nt of Labor 1991 , Am m e rm an an d Pratzn e r 19 77) . Judgm e n ts re gard in g th e re le van ce of task spe cification s for train in g program de sign are th e n c olle c te d from su bje c t m atte r e xp e rts ( for e xam ple , e xp e rie n ce d worke rs an d supe rvisors) . Table 3 pre se nts a sam ple list of dim e n sions to in clude in spe cific que stions about e ach ide ntifie d task ( Am m e rm an an d Pratzn e r 1977) . Data colle cte d from que stion naire s can be an alyze d for statistical m e asu re s of re spon se s from th e diffe re n t e xp e rts. The n e xt ke y issue in task an alysis is the de ve lopm e n t of KSA ( kn owle d ge , skill, an d ability) attribute s of the in divid uals un de rgoin g train in g, de fin e d as follows ( Prie n 1977) . ( 1) `Kn owle dge ( K) is the foun dation upon wh ich abilities an d skills are built. Knowle dge re fers to an organ ized bod y of inform ation usually of a factual or proce dural n atu re , wh ich , if ap plie d m ake s ad e quate job pe rform an ce possible . It should be n ote d th at the posse ssion of kn owle dge doe s not in sure that it will be used . `Skill ( S) re fe rs to the capability to pe rform job ope ration s with e ase an d pre cision. Mo st ofte n skills re fer to psychom otor typ e activitie s. Th e

Table 3.

Sam ple list of task dim e nsions ( Amm e rm an and Pratzn e r 1977) .

Im portance of the task Im portance of criticality of task for the job Im portance of con seque nce s of e rror in task pe rformance Tim e -frequ ency Tasks actually pe rform e d the pre vious year Fre que ncy of task perform ance on the job Most re ce nt tim e task was pe rform e d on the job Difficulty of le arnin g of task How difficult is it to learn task? How difficult is it to learn task on job? How m uch opportu nity is give n to learn task on job? Difficulty of task perform ance How difficult is it to perform task? Wh y is it difficult to pe rform task ( task com ple xity, lack of trainin g, m on oton y, fatigue, e tc.) ? Miscellane ous Wh e re should task be learne d? Wh at le vel of worke r proficien cy is e xpe cted afte r training?

( 3)

spe cification of a skill usually im plie s a pe rform an ce stan dard th at is usually re quire d for e ffective job ope ration s . `Ability ( A) usually re fers to cogn itive capabilitie s ne ce ssary to pe rform a job func tion. Most ofte n abilitie s re quire th e ap plication of som e kn owle dge base .

( 2)

Train in g an alysts ge ne rally re com m e n d that task in form ation de ve lope d from task an alyse s be supplie d to a pan e l of e xp e rts an d knowle dge able pe rson s, an d th e y be aske d to an swe r que stions such as `Describe th e ch aracte ristics of good an d poor workers on n ame

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A. Penn athu r e t al. is possible to de sign an e nviro nm e n t for in struc tion wh ich can late r be tran sfe rre d to a job se ttin g. Howe ve r, it is the opin ion of m an y in the train in g field th at le arning th e ory h as te nde d to focus on high ly spe cific laboratory e xp e rim e n tation, an d th at th e prin ciple s that h ave re sulte d from such e xpe rim e n tation h ave yie lde d the m se lve s to ve ry little ge n e ralization to fie ld se ttin gs ( Goldste in 1986 ) . It was obse rve d th at som e of the core le arn ing prin ciple s, such as fe e dback, prac tice distribution , an d m e an ingfu ln e ss, we re in ade quate in de sign in g e ffe ctive train ing situation s ( Gagn e 1962) . Le arnin g th e ory ad ds little to e xp lain in g com ple x hum an be haviour such as proble m solvin g, pe rce ptu al m otor le arning, con ce pt le arn in g, e tc. ( Baldwin an d Ford 1988, Cam pbe ll 19 88) . Ac cordin g to Goldste in, the se de ficie n cie s in le arn in g the ory h ave re sulte d n ot on ly in train in g practition e rs ign oring le arning principle s, but also in th e de ve lopm e n t of in structional the orie s out of e xpe rie nce s from in struc tion al settings. In fact, m ost of th e curre n t the ore tical fram e work th at e xists in train in g lite ratu re is base d up on th e se instruction al the orie s. Th e orie s of in struction attem pt to re late spe cifie d e ve n ts com prising instruc tion, to le arning proce sse s an d le arn in g outcom e s, drawin g upon kn owle dge ge ne rate d by le arn in g re search an d the ory ( Gagn e an d Dick 19 83, Gagn e an d Glase r 1987, Pintrich et al. 1986) . Th e se th e orie s are pre scriptive in natu re an d cate gorize le arn in g ou tcom e s to organ ize h um an pe rform an ce . Wh e n le arning outcom e s, or le arn e d cap abilities, are m atc he d with diffe re n t instructional e ve n ts such as inform in g the le arne r of th e obje ctive of th e in struc tion, or e licitin g th e pe rform an ce from th e le arne r, or asse ssin g pe rform an ce of the le arn e r, or e n h an cing re ten tion an d tran sfer of the instruc tion, diffe re n t ways of m an ipulatin g in struction al e ve n ts for th e diffe re n t cate gorie s of le arnin g outcom e s re sult. Table 4 provid e s an e xam ple of som e of th e se in struction al e ve n ts an d the conditions of le arn in g im plie d by th e se in struc tional e ve nts for th e five diffe re n t typ e s of le arning cap abilitie s. Re ce nt advan ce s in cognitive psych ology ( An de rson 1985) an d cogn itive ap proac he s to le arning such as au tom atic proce ssin g, m e ntal m ode ls an d sch e m a, an d m e ta-cogn ition ( Howe ll an d Cooke 19 89) ad d to th e un de rstan din g of basic hum an le arn in g. Th e se are e volvin g con ce pts an d th e use fuln e ss of th e se conce pts in train in g de sign re m ain s to be se e n . Th e prin ciple s of train in g program de sign in clude ide n tifyin g tasks an d task com pon e n ts of a job ( ne e ds asse ssm e n t) , buildin g the se tasks an d task com pone n ts in th e train ing program , an d arran gin g th e actual le arn ing of th e se task com pone nts in an op tim al

of task; `Th in k of som e one you know wh o is be tte r th an an yone e lse at name of task. `Wh at is the re ason th e y do it so we ll?; `Wh at doe s a pe rson n e e d to know in orde r to name of task? ; `Give con cre te e xam ple s of e ffe ctive or in e ffe ctive pe form an ce an d le ad a discussion to e xp lain cau se s or re ason s ; `If you are goin g to hire a pe rson to pe rform n ame of task, wh at kin d of KSAs would you wan t th e pe rson to have ? ; `Wh at do you e xp e ct pe rson s to le arn in train ing th at would m ake the m e ffe ctive at n ame of task? Future -orie nte d task an alysis ( Sch n e ide r an d Kon z 1989 ) an d future orie nte d critical incide n t an alysis ( Cam p be ll 198 8) are two e volvin g proce dure s that a job an alysts can use for e lic itin g in form ation from th e e xp e rts r e gardin g future train ing e xp e ctation s for a task. Th e job an alysts would th e n write KSA state m e n ts for jobs ke e pin g in m in d issu e s su ch as ge n e rality ve rsus sp e c ificity, re du ndan cy in state m e n ts, an d triviality of in form ation . An oth e r ap proach use s worke r traits an d in terpre ts jobs in te rm s of hum an attribute s ( attitud e s, te m pe ram e n ts, in te re sts, e tc.) n e c e ssar y for su c c e ss ( US De partm e n t of Labor 1991) . In stru c tion al syste m de ve lopm e n t ( Ryd e r et al. 1987) , think-aloud ve rbal protocols an d psych om e tric scalin g ( Cooke an d Sch avan e ve ldt 1988, Gre e n an d Gih ooly 19 90) , are e volvin g m e th ods from artificial in te llige n c e an d cogn itive psychology fie lds to e lic it in form ation about jobs from e xp e rts. Th e th ird an d fin al ste p in ne e ds asse ssm e n t is pe rson an alysis. It de term ine s th e typ e an d con te nt of train in g ne e de d by an in divid ual. The obje ctive of a pe rson an alysis is to e n able the train in g an alyst to ide n tify crite ria that m ust be use d to be tte r tailor th e train in g program de sign to th e ch aracte ristics of th e train e e population .

3.2. Train in g program design Th e re is re c ognition th at train ing an d in struction al program s in organ ization s are but on e part of th e com ple x system th at an organ ization is, an d th at th e e fficacy of train ing can affect othe r subsyste m s of th e m assive system th at is th e organ ization . Not on ly doe s a syste m s vie w of th e train in g fun ction provid e a fram e work for studyin g the in teraction of oth e r com pon e n ts an d subsystem s involve d, it h e lps in de sign in g ap propriate fe e dback m e ch an ism s for corre cting an d m odifyin g in struction ( Goldste in 1986) . In de e d, all re se arch e fforts in train in g an d de ve lop m e nt e m body prin ciple s of th e syste m s fram e work. Th e use of le arning prin ciple s as th e basis for in struction al de sign is de pe n de nt upon th e be lie f that it

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g

Table 4. Sam ple instructional e ve nts, con ditions of learning for the five le arne d capabilities ( Gagn e et al. 1979) . Type of le arne d capabilities Instruction al even t Inform ing le arne r of obje ctive Inte llectual skill Provide de scription an d exam ple of the pe rform ance to be expecte d Cognitive strategy Clarify the ge ne ral nature of the solution expecte d Inform ation Indicate the kind of ve rbal qu e stion to be an swere d Attitude Provide e xam ple of the kind of action choice aim ed for Motor skill

299

Provide a dem on stration of the perform ance to be e xpe cted Ask for e xecution of the perform ance

Eliciting the pe rform ance

Ask le arne r to app ly Ask for proble m rule or con cept to solution new exam ples

Ask for inform ation in paraph rase , or in le arne r s own words

Ask le arne r to indicate choice s of action in re al or sim ulate d situations Provide additional varie d situations for se lecte d choice of action

En hancing rete ntion and transfe r

Provide space d re views including a varie ty of e xam ple s

Provide occasion s for a varie ty of nove l proble m solutions

Provid e ve rbal links to additional com ple xes of inform ation

Le arn er con tinues skill practice

se que nce ( Cam p be ll 19 71) . Nee ds asse ssm e n t he lps de ve lop obje ctive s for th e trainin g program m e th at are the n transfe rre d to th e traine e in an ap propriate le arn in g e n viron m e n t through ap prop riate in struction al or train in g m e dia.

( 1)

3.3. Factors affectin g train in g Ap art from the diffe re n t type s of instruc tional an d train in g m e dia, train ing de sign re quire s con side ration of the train ing e nvironm e nt an d th e train e e be h avior. Th e factors th at affe ct a train e e s be h avior be fore train in g in clude train e e re adine ss an d train e e m otivation ( Noe 198 6) . Train e e re ad in e ss in volve s both m atu ration al an d e xpe rim e n tial factors in th e le arne r backgroun d ( Goldste in 1986) . In form ation about train e e bac kgroun d ( wh at th e train e e s kn ow be fore be gin n in g trainin g) is th e re fore im portan t for train in g de sign . Th e m otivation of a train e e to un de rgo train in g is an oth e r im portan t pre con dition to le arn ing. Motivation has be e n obse rve d to in volve be h aviour th at is active , purposive , an d goal-dire cte d ( Bourne an d Ekstran d 1973 ) . Eve n th ough m ost th e ore tical an d e m pirical re se arch on m otivation has be e n don e in re lation to pe rform an ce on th e job, in dustrial psych ology h as two the orie s to offe r about m otivation . The first the ory se e ks to e xp lain h ow be havior is e ne rgize d, dire cted , sustain e d an d stoppe d. Th e se con d th e ory, th e the ory of con te n t, se e ks to e xp lain wh at th in gs m otivate pe ople ( Ste e rs an d Porte r 1983) . The re are also th e orie s th at aid in th e e stablish m e n t of m otivation al le ve ls in train in g an d le arn ing se ttin gs:

( 2)

( 3)

( 4) ( 5)

( 6)

th e re in force m e nt th e ory the re spon se of a pe rson to stim uli re inforce s or re wards th e pe rson , wh ich positively orie n ts train e e s towards pe rform an ce ( Pe dalin o an d Gam boa 1974, Yu kl an d Lath am 1975) ( tim in g of re in force m e n t, partial re in force m e n t, an d pun ishm e n t, are also im portan t factors) ; th e in strum e n tality th e ory ( Vroom 1964 ) cogn itive e xp e c tan cie s con ce rnin g outcom e s th at are like ly to occur as a re sult of th e participan t s be havior; th e n e e d th e o r y ( Atkin so n an d Fe ath e r 1966 ) be h avioral te n de ncy to strive for succe ss; th e th e ory of h ie rarc hy of n e e ds ( Maslow 1954 ) ; th e two -fa c to r th e o r y ( H e r z b e r g et a l. 1959 ) postulate s th e e xiste n ce of e xtrin sic ( pay, job se curity, e tc.,) an d in trin sic ( re cogn ition , re spon sibility, e tc.) factors; th e goal-se ttin g th e ory ( Lath am an d Locke 1979 , Locke et al. 1981 ) .

Th e e xte n t of origin al le arn in g occurrin g during train in g is known to influe n ce th e am ount of tran sfe r of train in g th at will occur during pe rform an ce of th e job ( Goldste in 19 86 ) . Th is im plie s th at de sign of th e le arn in g e n viron m e n t sh ould e n sure substantial le arn in g for its e ffe ct to be tran sfe rre d ove r to actual job pe rform an ce . The size of the train ing unit ( wh ole ve rsus part le arnin g) is on e of th e im portant var iable s th at h as be e n sh own to affe c t task pe rform an c e ( Holding 1965 ) . Th e difficulty of th e total task has be e n sugge sted to be the sum of the difficulties of th e

300

A. Penn athu r e t al. be h avioral role -m ode ling use d. Re vie we rs ( Cam pbe ll 1988, Tan ne n baum an d Y ukl 19 92) h ave , howe ve r, con c lude d th at m ost re se arc h stu die s on train in g m e thods h ave be e n de m on stration -type studie s in volvin g com parison of on e train in g m e th od with an othe r or to a n o-le arn in g con trol condition . Th e se studie s de m on strate th at a m e thod `works or is `supe rior to an oth e r m e th od, but ad d little prac tical value as th e y do not show wh y a ce rtain m e th od e n han ce s le arn ing or how a ce rtain m e thod can be use d m ore e ffe ctive ly for train ing ( Tan ne nbau m an d Yukl 1992 ) . In th e followin g parag rap h s, som e of th e m ore com m on ly use d m e th ods of train in g are brie fly re vie we d. Sim ulation s an d gam e s se e m to be popular m e th ods of train in g in the m ilitary an d for train ing m an age rs. To sim ulate is to re plicate e ssen tial ch aracte ristics of th e re al world in orde r to facilitate le arn in g, an d tran sfe r of suc h le arn in g. Sim ulation s vary in size an d scope de pe nding on th e com ple xity of issue s be in g sim ulate d an d the participan t size . Th e m ost im portan t, an d pe rh aps con trove rsial, issue in volvin g the use of sim ulation is sim ulation fide lity ( Hays an d Sin ge r 1989) . Man y sim ulators, such as th ose use d for fligh t sim ulation , carry a gre at de al of ph ysical fide lity ( re pre se ntation of actual flyin g characte ristics) , but lack psych ological fide lity, th e ability of th e sim ulator to re produce , durin g train in g, be h avioral proc e sse s e sse ntial for job pe rform an ce . Most sim ulations use partial task sim ulation due to e ith e r the proh ibitive cost, the dan ge rs in volve d in sim ulatin g e n tire tasks, or the non -im portance of ce rtain factors in con tributing to the le arn in g of a task ( Goldste in 1986) . For e xam ple , the in clusion of m otion in flight sim ulation , in ad dition to possibly be in g a n on -con tributin g factor to le arnin g, costs an ad dition al $250 000. In ad dition to issue s involvin g sim ulation fide lity, sim ulation s utilized in te am train ing e n vironm e nts pre se n t un re solve d re se arch issue s such as in divid ual ve rsus te am fe e dback affe cting te am pe rform an ce ( see Swe ze y an d Salas 1992) , for othe r issue s in team train ing) ; ide n tificatio n an d quan tification of param e ters de scribing team be havior an d te am com m un ication ; an d coordin ation an d de cision m aking ( De n son 1981) . Re se arch on origin al le arning e fficie n cy, tran sfe r of le arn in g to th e n e w task, an d re te n tion of le arn in g, all im p ortan t m e asu re s in e valuatin g tran sfe r of train in g an d all vital to th e inte grity of sim ulation re sults, is plag ue d by de sign proble m s due to lack of a con trol group ( Goldste in 1986) . The re is also ve ry little inform ation on longterm re ten tion of skills obtain e d th rough sim ulation ( Willige s et al. 197 2) . Efforts to de sign be tter sim ulators wh ic h im p rove le arn in g durin g train in g are curre ntly unde rway.

sub-tasks in volve d in pe rform in g th e total task. O ne of th e prin ciple s of train in g de sign sugge sts th at wh e n a task has high organ ization, wh ole m e th ods are m ore e fficie n t th an part m e th ods for in cre ase s in task com ple xity. Wh e n a task h as low organ ization , part m e th ods are m ore e fficie n t than wh ole m e thods for in cre ase s in task com ple xity ( Naylor 1962) . Also, for tasks that can e asily be se parate d, com bin ing th e m at a late r tim e doe s not pose an y difficulty for th e le arne r ( Holding 1965 ) . In such a case , prope r an alysis of th e job is im portant for corre ct se que n cin g of com pone n t le arn in g, an d for e n surin g that the le arn e r has th e prope r capabilitie s to pe rform the com pon e n ts ( Briggs 1968 ) . The principle of m ass ( no re st) ve rsus distribute d ( with re st) practice is also im portant in e nh an cing tran sfe r from the le arning e nviron m e n t to th e actual job. Re st inte rvals during practice se ssions ( distribute d practice ) have be e n shown to be m ore e ffe ctive in train in g than m ass practice for e nh an ce m e n t of m otor skills ( Lorge 19 30, De Ce cco 196 8) . It is ge ne rally th ough t th at m asse d le arnin g con ditions on ly ham pe r pe rform an ce but n ot le arn in g ( Holding 1965, Re yn olds an d Bilode au 195 2) . O ve rle arnin g has im plication s for skill acquisition an d tran sfe r of train in g. O ve rle arn in g is im portan t for th orough le arning of the task ( McGe h e e an d Thaye r 1961 ) an d to m ain tain pe rform an ce durin g e m e rge n cy an d stre ss con dition s ( Fitts 19 65) . Knowle dge of re sults or `fe e dback, e ve n though que stionable in trackin g an d trouble -sh ootin g tasks ( Gagne 19 62) , im p rove s pe r for m an c e d u e to m otivatio n al an d in form ation al fun ction s in volve d in fe e dback ( Holdin g 19 65, Th orn dike 1927 , Kom aki et al. 1980 ) . Th e con ce pt of re te n tion of pre viously le arn e d m ate rials h as be e n stu d ie d m ain ly in lab orato r y se ttin gs ( Joh n son 1981 ) . Th e fe w studie s that have be e n pe rform e d in m ilitary settings ( Hagm an an d Rose 19 83 ) h ave sh own th at re te n tion of le arn in g is in flue n ce d by th e de gre e of origin al le arn in g, th e m e an in gfu ln e ss of th e m ate rial pre se n te d to th e train e e , th e am oun t of in te rfe re n ce ( from pre vio usly le arn e d m ate rials an d from activitie s th at oc cur durin g le arn ing of th e origin al m ate rial that affe ct re call) , an d th e m otive s an d pe rce ption of activitie s associate d with tasks.

3.4. Train in g methods Train in g lite ratu re is re p le te with a var ie ty of in struction al m e thods, such as classroom le cturin g, program m e d instruc tion, com pute r aide d in struction , m ach in e sim ulators, be h avior m od ification tech n ique s, sim ulation s involvin g busine ss gam e s, role playin g, an d

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g Te ch niqu e s such as role -playin g also provid e traine e s an opportun ity to e xp e rien ce an d e xplore solution s to a var ie ty of on -th e -job proble m s. Role -playin g is use d prim arily for in te rpe rson al proble m s an d attitude ch an ge an d de ve lop m e n t of h u m an -re lation s skills ( Bass an d Vau gh h an 1966 ) . This m e thod succe e ds only wh e n the participan ts actually willin gly ad opt the role s an d re act as if the y we re re ally in th e work e nviron m e n t ( Cam pbe ll et al. 1970 ) . The re are diffe re n t form s of role -playin g such as train e e s playin g re ve rse role s ( Spe roff 195 4) , m ultiple role -playin g am on g train e e s ( Maie r an d Ze rfoss 1952 ) , an d se lf-con fron tation ( King 1966 ) . Be h avioral role -m ode ling, an ap proac h base d on soc ial-le arnin g the ory ( Ban dura 1969 , 1977 ) , is an ap proac h for the acquisition of n ove l re spon se s an d m odification of h um an be h avior th rough obse rvation, m ode lin g an d re in force m e n t. Som e of th e ke y e le m e n ts of the be h avior role -m ode ling ap proach for train in g include : ( 1) provid ing th e train e e with n um e rous, vivid, de taile d displays ( on film , vid e otape or live ) of a m an ag e r-actor ( th e m ode l) pe rform ing th e spe cific be h aviors an d skills for th e train e e to le arn ; givin g the train e e con side rable gu idan ce in an d opportunity an d e n courage m e n t for be h aviorally re h e arsin g or practicin g th e be h aviors h e / sh e has se e n durin g role playin g; p rovid in g h im / h e r with positive fe e dbac k, ap proval or re ward as h is/ he r role playin g e nactm e nts in cre asin gly ap proxim ate th e be h avior of the m ode l ( Goldste in an d Sorche r 197 4) .

301

( 2)

( 3)

In ad dition to th e tech n ique s de scribe d h e re , th e re are oth e r train in g te ch n ique s for m an age rial an d inte rpe rson al skills: ach ie ve m e nt m otivation train in g ( McCle llan d an d Win ter 1969) , le ad e r m atch train in g ( Fie lde r 196 4, 1967, Fie dle r et al. 1971 ) , an d train in g the rate rs ( Lath am et al. 19 75) . O ne of th e m ost wid e ly use d m e th ods of train ing a worke r is on-th e -job train in g. Howe ve r, th e re se e m s to have be e n ve ry little re search done on the utility of this m e th od. Most of the train in g re se arch e rs se e m to use th is m e th od as a con trol proce dure for re se arch in ve stigatin g oth e r train in g te c h n ique s. Th e be st availab le in form ation for th e on -th e -job train in g m e th od is base d only on in tuition ( Goldste in 1986) . Th is is all th e m ore striking, as on -th e -job train in g is ofte n th e on ly in struction that m an ufacturing worke rs m ay re c e ive for c e rtain typ e s of jobs. Eve n th is in struc tion m ay be lim ite d to th e worke r sim ply

watch ing an e xp e rien ce d worke r pe rform ing a task. With prope r de sign of the on -th e -job train ing protocol, th e re could be ce rtain advan tage s to th is train ing m e thod ove r oth e rs. Tran sferrin g th e train in g be com e s le ss difficu lt as the wo rke r is be ing train e d in e xac tly th e sam e ph ysical an d social e n viron m e n t in wh ic h h e is e xpe c te d to pe rform afte r train in g. Be side s, we ll de sign e d on -the -job train in g provid e s workers with an opportun ity to prac tice th e re quire d be h avior, an d could re sult in th e colle ction of m ore job-re le van t e valu ation crite ria. Howe ve r, on -the -job train in g can be e asily abused by using sim ple in struc tion s an d poor train ing de sign . O n -site an d on -the -job train in g se e m s to be the le ast re se arc he d an d th e m ost poorly de sign e d m e thod of train ing at th e pre se n t tim e . Th e le cture m e th od is ofte n ine xp e nsive com pare d to the oth e r m e th ods of train in g; the re is a ten de n cy am on g re searche rs to use th e le cture m e th od for con trol purpose s, an d to proclaim th e supe riority of othe r m e thods. It is popular in e ducation al an d school se ttin gs, but it is inse nsitive to in divid ual diffe re n ce s, an d provide s lim ite d fe e dback to th e traine e . Th is te ch n ique , h owe ve r, m ay be used wh e n knowle dge gain is the ultim ate goal of train in g. Th e m e th od m ay also be u se d to im p art in form atio n of ge n e ral aware n e ss n ature . Th e re is little e m pirical e vide n ce in th e train in g lite ratu re on th e e fficacy of th e le cture m e thod. Th e late st m e th od th at h as ge n e rate d e xcite m e n t am on g train ing practition e rs is th e use of com pute rs as tools for instruction, com m on ly re fe rre d to as com pute r-assiste d instruction ( CAI) . Th e re are a num be r of com puter-assiste d train in g tech n ique s in vogu e , am ong wh ich the m ost im portant are th e drill-an d-practice m e th od ( Su p p e s an d Je r m an 19 70 , Su p p e s an d Morn in gstar 1969 , McCan n 1975 ) , an d the tutorial form of in struc tion ( Collin s an d Ad am s 1977 ) . Th e m ajor advan tage s of CAI are the in divid ualization of in stru ction , provisio n s for good re in for ce m e n t of le arn in g, an d good data-colle ction p rovision s. Th e m ajor disad van tage s are th e cost an d affordab ility of CAI system s, an d the issue of wh e the r a m ach in e orie n te d le arnin g e n viron m e nt is e n ou gh stim ulus for le arn e r satisfaction , m otivation , an d furth e r de ve lopm e nt. In com parin g th e pros an d cons ( cost an d proxim ity to re al workin g atm osph e re ) associate d with var ious train in g m e th ods, it ap pe ars th at on-th e -job training has th e be st pote ntial, provid e d that the sh ortcom in gs ge n e rally associate d with it ( th at is, lack of prope r in struction s) are ove rcom e . Th e m ost de sirable attribute s of th e m e thod are its low cost an d the ability to re plicate the workin g e n viron m e n t.

302 3.5. Evalu ation of trainin g

A. Penn athu r e t al. sh ould be in c lu d e d ( Kirkp atr ic k 1959) . Re ac tion de n otes wh at train e e s th in k of th e train in g program . It c an be m e asu re d by a que stion naire de signe d on th e basis of in form ation obtain e d durin g n e e ds asse ssm e nt. Le arn in g m e asu re s sh ould in clude com pon e nts th at m e asu re le arnin g durin g train ing ( for e xam ple , writte n tests an d le arnin g curve s) . Good train in g pe rform an ce m ay n ot re sult in good job pe rform an ce if th e re are difficultie s in transfe r setting de sign . Me asu re s th at are use d durin g train ing can typ ically be also use d for m e asu rin g job pe rform an ce . Re sults, including such m e asu re s as costs, turnove r, abse n te e ism , grie van ce s, an d m orale , can be use d to re late re sults of the train ing program to organ ization al goals an d obje ctive s ( Kirkpatrick 19 59) . Th e re are oth e r m e asure s, such as train e rs attitude s, th e train e e s e xp e ctations from th e train ing program s, le arn in g an d pe rform an ce , th at can be use d to e valu ate train in g program s. Le arn ing crite ria m e asure d e arly in train in g, an d be h avior crite ria m e asu re d afte r train in g an d transfe r to th e job, sh ould re fle ct th e e ffe cts of th e tim e dim e n sion upon le arn in g as tim e of data colle ction adds to the variation in crite ria use d in e valuatin g train in g. Evalu ation criteria could also be classifie d in to crite rion - an d n orm -re fe re n ce d m e asu re s, an d obje ctive an d subje ctive m e asu re s. Crite rion -re fe re n c e d m e asu re s provide an ach ie ve m e n t stan dard for in divid uals as com pare d with spe cific be havioral obje ctive s; norm -re fe re nce d m e asu re s, on the oth e r h an d, com pare th e capabilitie s of an in divid ual with th ose of oth e r train e e s in th e program . Me asu re s that re quire judgm e n t, an d opinion , are subje ctive ( such as ratin g scale s) . Th e m ost im portan t que stion s to be an swe re d in e valuatin g the e fficacy of train ing program s are : ( 1) ( 2) ( 3) h as a re al chan ge occurre d? is the ch an ge attribu table to the instruc tional program ? is the chan ge like ly to occur ag ain with a n e w sam ple ?

Evalu ation is de fin e d as the system atic colle ction of de scriptive an d judgm e n tal inform ation re quire d to m ake e ffe ctive train in g de cisions re late d to the se le ction , ad option , valu e , an d m odification of various in struction al activitie s. Som e of th e difficulties with e valu atin g train in g p rogram s in clu de d ifficulty in e stablish in g re le van t e valu ation crite ria, lack of pe rson ne l train e d in the e valu ation m e thodology, difficultie s in showin g statistical differe n ce s be twe e n alte rnative s, an d the fe ar of n e gative con se que n ce s of a poor e valu ation ( Goldstein 1986 ) . Deve loping e ffe ctive e valu ation crite ria is the first ste p in e valu ation. Th e m ost im portan t re quire m e n t in e stablish in g e valu ation criteria is th e re le van ce of th e crite ria in e valuatin g succe ss in pe rform ing the task. If pe rform an ce during train in g is use d as a m e asu re of succe ss on th e job, the e valu ation sh ould atte m pt to e stablish th e re lation sh ip be twe e n pe rform an ce s durin g train in g an d on th e job. A sim ilarity be twe e n th e train in g e valu atio n c rite r ia an d job p e r form an c e e valu ation crite ria is sugg e ste d by Th orndike ( 19 49) . It sh ould be n oted th at e valu ation crite ria could be de ficie nt in a n um be r of ways. O n e de ficie nc y could be th at an im portant KSA attribute is ide n tifie d but le ft out of the crite rion con structs. It is also possible that KSAs ide n tifie d durin g th e n e e d s asse ssm e n t ph ase are re quire d for pe rform an ce of a job, but not include d in train in g. Also, th e e valu ation criteria use d sh ould re fle ct th e fact th at train e e s will n ot be able to pe rform as we ll as an e xpe rie nce d worke r, at le ast in itially, an d th e pe rform an ce will im prove with train ing ove r a pe riod of tim e . It is also possible that e xtran e ous e le m e n ts such as opportun ity bias ( in divid uals havin g diffe ring opportunitie s for suc ce ss at job, un re late d to skills de ve lope d th rough trainin g) , group-ch aracte ristic bias ( characte ristics in the group se ttin g n ot pe rm itting traine e s to de m onstrate skills gain e d from train in g) , kn owle dge of train in g pe rform an ce ( in divid uals pe rform in g we ll in train in g be ing sim ilarly e valuate d in th e job setting) m ay contam in ate crite ria for e valu ation . It sh ould be note d th at m an y factors m ay affe ct the re liability of e valu ation crite ria. Th e se factors m ay in clude : th e size of the sam ple , variation in th e ab ility am on g th e participan ts, am biguity of in struc tion s, variation in con dition s durin g m e asu re m e nt pe riods, an d assistan ce provid e d by in strum e n ts. Un de r such circum stan ce s, a m e asure of re liability for the e valu ation crite ria sh ould be ad d e d ( Nagle 19 53 ) . Also, wh e n e ve r, possible , m ultiple an d in de pe n de n t e valu ation crite ria sh ould be used to provide som e re liability. At le ast four le ve ls of cr ite ria ( r e ac tion , le arn in g, be h avio r an d re su lts)

A pre -train in g an d p ost-train in g te st will h e lp de te rm in e if th e train e e s pe rform an c e im p rove d significan tly afte r train ing. Th e m ost im portan t con side ration in th is testin g is th e tim in g of th e post-test. It has be e n sugge ste d that two post-train in g tests sh ould be give n so th at com parison s can be m ad e be twe e n th e pre -train in g te st an d first post-training te st, th e pre train ing te st an d th e se cond post-trainin g te st, an d th e first an d se cond post-train in g te sts ( Goldste in 1986) . Me asu re s associate d with th e obje ctive s of train ing sh ould be use d in th e te sts.

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g A n um be r of possible source s of e rror h ave be e n poin te d out in th e lite ratu re , sugge stin g p ossible conside ration s of the se as con trol var iable s in th e e xpe rim e n tal de sign . Th re ats to valid ity could com e from : ( 1) h istory ( e .g. tim e lag in ad m in istration of te sting) ; ( 2) m atu ration , re fe rrin g to th e biologic al or psych ological e ffe cts th at syste m atically vary with tim e ( such as fatigu e an d in te re st in th e program ) ; ( 3) testin g ( such as influe n ce of pre -te st on th e score s of th e post-test) ; ( 4) instrum e n tation ( an y ch an ge s in te stin g in strum e n ts be twe e n pre - an d post-te sts) ; ( 5) e rrors due to statistical re gre ssion; ( 6) diffe re ntial se le ction of particip an ts; ( 7) e xpe rim e n tal m ortality ( diffe re n tial loss of participan ts from control or tre atm e n t groups) ; ( 8) inte raction s; ( 9) diffusion or im itation of tre atm e n ts with in an organ ization ; ( 10) com pe n satory e qualization of tre atm e n ts ( be n e fits th at control subje cts ge t wh ich wip e out m e asu re d diffe re n ce s) ; ( 11) c om p e n satory rivalr y be twe e n re sp on de n ts re ce ivin g le ss de sirable tre atm e n ts; ( 12) d e m oralization of re sp on d e n ts in c on trol group ( Cook an d Cam pbe ll 1976, 1979 ) . Th re ats to ge n e ralization of the study to othe r groups or train in g situation s could com e from : ( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 4) incre ase d se nsitivity of participan ts afte r pre te st; in te r action of se le ction an d e xp e rim e n tal tre atm e n t; aware n e ss of participation , or th e `I m -a-guin e a-p ig e ffe ct ; carry ove r e ffe cts of oth e r tre atm e n ts ( Cam pbe ll an d Stan le y 1963) . 4. Ge ne ral re vie w fin d in gs

303

Th e diffe re n t typ e s of e xpe rim e n tal de sign s used in train in g in clude : ( 1) pre -e xpe rim e n tal de sign s in volvin g e ith e r a on e -group post-test on ly de sign , or a on e -group pre -te st/ post-test de sign ; pre -te st/ post-test control-group de sign s; quasi-e xp e rim e n tal or tim e -se rie s de sign s ( sim ilar to ( 1) e xce pt th at a serie s of m e asure m e n ts ar e take n b e fo r e an d afte r th e trainin g) .

( 2) ( 3)

Base d on the re vie w of publish e d lite ratu re , a n um be r of obse rvation s we re m ad e . Som e of the se h ave be e n poin ted out e arlie r. Th e followin g are th e m ain obse rvation s re sultin g from th is re vie w. Ve ry little train ing-re late d work e xists in e ngin e e rin g. Most re se arch lite rature on trainin g is con ce n trate d in th e be havioral scie n ce s. En gin e e ring train ing lite rature , wh ate ve r little the re is, ge n e rally de als with th e de ve lop m e nt of m ath e m atical m ode ls for a fle xible workforce ( not re vie we d in th is pap e r) or surve ys of h um an re source m an age m e n t practice s in in dustrie s. The ove rall con clusion of surve ys is that training th e workforce is in de e d e sse n tial. Th e re are , h owe ve r, n o syste m atic inve stigations of train ing m e th ods in th e m an ufacturin g con te xt th at have be e n re porte d in e n gin e e rin g lite rature . Train in g re se arch in th e be havioral scie n ce s has re sulte d in use ful in sights in to con side ratio ns th at sh ould be taken in to conside ration wh e n de sign ing train in g e xpe rim e n ts or train in g program s. Man y of th e ap proach e s to train in g that have be e n discusse d in th e be h avioral lite rature , such as th e syste m s ap proach , an d spe cific te ch n ique s an d m e thods in train in g, in cluding task an alysis an d job an alysis, h ave be e n in e xiste n ce an d in active use in in dustrial e n gin e e rin g se ttin gs for job an d work de sign for a lon g tim e . Application of th e se tech n ique s in train in g re se arc h in m an ufacturing organ ization s, th e re fore , should n ot re quire de ve lop ing n e w te ch n ique s an d ap proach e s. No on -site train in g stud ie s in m an ufactu rin g organ ization s we re ide n tified in th e publish e d lite rature . Th e bulk of train ing re search in th e be h avioral scie n ce s has de alt with n on -m an ufac turin g occupation s, such as m usic, police work, train in g in th e m ilitary, an d lan gu age s. As m e n tione d e arlie r, the se studie s provid e insigh ts in to train in g m e thods, factors affe ctin g train ing an d in flue n cing train ing outcom e s, train in g pe rform an ce m e asu re s, an d h um an be havior. Howe ve r, the y provide ve ry little in sigh t in to train ing prac tice s, n e e ds, m e th ods, an d e valu ation criteria, th at one would fin d use ful in de ve lop ing train ing program s for workers in a m an ufacturin g e n viron m e nt. Such in sigh ts are vital in orde r to de ve lop e ffe ctive train in g program s an d strate gie s for pre p arin g the Am e rican m an ufacturing workers for global com pe tition . Be side s th e above de ficie n cie s, the curre n t de ficie n cie s in the be h avioral train ing re se arch on train ing h um an s ap ply as we ll. The late st availab le re vie w on train in g h um an s conclude s th at re se arch e rs are on ly n ow be gin nin g to `. . . con side r train e e s as active p articip an ts in th e syste m wh o in te rac t with th e

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A. Penn athu r e t al. le arn in g proce ss will also re sult in re duce d scrap rate s. In ad e quate m an -m ac h in e in te rfac e s: m an y train in g issue s arise be cau se of in ad e quate de sign of the use r in terface s on m ach in e s. O pe rators will h ave to be train e d to unde rstan d an d ad e quate ly ope rate th e e quipm e n t. Such train ing will also re sult in be tte r products, lowe r le ad tim e s, an d lowe r cost.

e n viron m e n t be fore train ing, durin g train in g, an d after train in g . . . . Furth e r, the re is a `. . . parad igm shift from re se arch de sign e d to sh ow that a particular type of train in g `works , to re search de sign e d to de te rm in e wh y, wh e n an d for wh om a particular typ e of train in g is e ffe ctive ( Tan n e n bau m an d Y ukl 19 92) . Also, th e con clusion of Tan n e n bau m an d Y ukl that train ing re se arc h e rs n e e d to con side r th e p urpose of th e train in g an d th e typ e of le arnin g in volve d in trainin g, is e qually valid for an y future train in g re se arch in m an u fac tu rin g. Th e se r e vie we rs also sugge st th at c ogn itive c on c e p ts an d h ig h te c h n o logy train in g m e th ods are be com ing in cre asin gly popular in train ing se ttin gs. In ad dition , th e se re vie we rs con clude that th e distin ction be twe e n on-th e -job train ing an d off-site train in g is be com ing blurre d due to th e de ve lopm e n t of on -lin e train in g te ch nologie s.

( 3)

5. A p ro p o se d fram e work f o r train in g m an u factu rin g worke rs In th is se ction , we pre se n t a fram e work for train ing worke rs in a m an ufac turin g e n viron m e n t. In th e lite rature re vie w, we ide ntifie d two m ain re ason s for train in g: to provide the wo rke r with m ore job option s an d choice s, an d to im prove th e productivity of th e com pan y. A m an ufacturing organ ization is drive n by th e products its de ve lops an d m arke ts. Th e productivity of the organ ization is im prove d by de ve loping proce sse s th at aid in m an u fac tur in g th e pr od u c t with th e re quire d quality, sh ort le ad tim e s, an d low un it cost. Som e sp e c ific re aso n s for train in g m an ufacturin g workers include . ( 1) Lac k of ad e quate in struc tion s: m ost wor k in struction s or proce ss plan s re quire an un de rstanding of th e proc e ss. It is difficult for a n ovice to be involve d in th e production of parts be cause of a lack of unde rstan din g of th e te rm inology an d ope rations of the m an ufac turin g proce sse s an d syste m s. Train in g incre ase s th e dom ain kn owle dg e th at th e op e rato r posse sses an d the re fore im prove s the proce ssin g ope ration . Th is re sults in lowe r scrap rate s, lowe r produc tion cost, shorte r cycle tim e s, an d be tter quality of th e prod uct. Im prove m e n t of e fficie n cy: train in g m ay also be re quire d for th e ope rator to de ve lop a th orough unde rstan ding of th e proce ss such th at in struction s, writte n or othe rwise , are n ot re quire d for con tin ue d pe rform an ce of th e tasks. Th is will im prove th e e fficie n cy of th e ope ration , th us re ducin g tim e an d cost. Th e

( 2)

O ve rall, th e n e e d for train in g in m an ufacturing e n viron m e n ts is drive n by the ne e d for th e m an ufacturing pe rson ne l to de ve lop an un de rstan ding of the products, proce sse s, an d syste m s th at the y are re quire d to m an ufacture / ope rate . Be cau se the n ature of proce sse s an d syste m s is dictate d by the products, the first ste p in de ve lopin g a train in g program h as to conce ntrate on product de sign . Figu re 1 outline s th e propose d fram e work for train ing worke rs in m an ufacturing e n viron m e nts. It is base d on th e pre m ise that for a m an ufacturin g e n tity to com ple te e ffec tive ly in a global m arke t, it m u st m an ufacture quality products th at use rs wan t or ne e d. Th e se products sh ould be u sab le an d re liable , an d ab le to be produce d quickly an d e conom ically. Th e ve ry first re quire m e n t is to de te rm in e an d con side r use rs ne e ds an d wan ts. Th e product de sign m ust conside r the se alon g with th e fun ction the product is suppose d to pe rform . Figu re 2 pre se n ts a structure d ap proach to im ple m e nting a m ajor part of th e fram e work ( up to skill gap ide n tification ) an d spe cifie s the m ajor activitie s, an d th e in for m ation flows re qu ire d to accom plish th e m . A longe r-te rm approac h to de ve lopin g train ing program s should be base d on a te chn ological fore cast an d strate gic plan th at outlin e s wh at m arkets th e com pan y in ten ds to pe n e trate an d th e re fore wh at n e w products are e xpe cte d to be de ve lope d. Th e product conce pts as we ll as e xp e c ted ad van ce s in product de ve lopm e nt re late d te chn ologie s will provid e a longterm vision of th e typ e s of te ch nologie s that th e m an ufacturing pe rson n e l will de al with during production . As sh own in figu re 2, th e ide ntification of sh ort- an d lon g-te rm strate gic n e e ds sh ould be don e by th e c om p an y s u pp e r m an ag e m e n t base d on inform ation about the e conom ic e n viron m e n t an d com pe titor positions. Th e con straint on th is activity is that th e strategic ne e ds sh ould focus on ly on th e com pan y s core com pe te n cie s, i.e . the spe cial kn owle dge an d skills th at it possesse s that m ake s it a succe ssful com pe titor in the m arke tplace . The output of th is activity would be the strate gic goals th at th e com pan y would be re quire d to ach ie ve in the shortan d long-te rm .

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g

305

Figure 1.

A propose d fram e work for trainin g m anufacturing worke rs.

O nce it h as be e n e n sure d that th e product h as be e n de sign e d to m e e t th e spe cifications an d n e e ds of th e m arke t, e fforts ne e d to be dire cte d to th e asse ssm e nt of tech n ologie s available to m an ufac ture it. The te ch n ology conside re d sh ould in clude not only wh at is availab le in -house but wh at is use d by th e com pe tition as we ll. For a sh ort-term train in g e ffort, the focus on proce sses re quire d to m an ufacture a particular product m ay be ap propriate . Howe ve r, a lon g-term m an ufacturin g te ch nology fore cast sh ould also be de ve lope d to ide ntify th e kn owle dge an d skills the pe rson ne l will be re quire d to h ave in th e future . Knowin g wh at te ch nology is availab le in -house an d wh at sh ould be procure d from outside to re m ain com p e titive will le ad to d e te rm in in g in ve stm e n t ne e ds. Se le ction of n e w e quipm e n t sh ould also be base d on the quality of th e use r in te rface s. As sh own in figu re 2, th e de ve lop m e nt of a te ch nology fore cast sh ould be pe rform e d by th e m an age m e nt base d on surve ys of e xp e rts, an d othe r te chn ique s for obtain ing

in form ation on e xp e cte d ad van ce s in m an ufacturing te ch n ology. Th e fore cast should be dire cte d by th e strategic goals of th e com pan y, i.e . it should be focuse d on topics an d are as th at dire ctly con tribute to th e com pan y s n e ar- an d lon g-te rm growth obje ctive s. An oth e r con strain t on th e fore cast de ve lopm e nt is th e te ch n ology curre n tly use d by th e com pan y. A fore cast of ad van ce s an d e volution s in m an ufacturing te ch nology sh ould addre ss h ow it will affe ct th e curre n t m an ufacturin g cap abilitie s of the com pan y. Spe cific focus should be on wh e th e r th e curre n t e quipm e n t would con tin ue to be use ful, or could be upgrad e d to ad ap t to th e ne w product an d proc e ss re quire m e nts. Th e output of this activity is th e m an ufac turin g proce ss te ch nology fore cast. Th e availab ility of cap ital will de te rm in e e quipm e nt an d au tom atio n capabilitie s, wh ich in turn will in flue n ce th e m e thod( s) of m an ufacture . Th e m e th ods of m an ufacture in this conte xt in clude th e ch oice of m ate rials, an d con se que ntly m an ufacturing pro-

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A. Penn athu r e t al.

IDENTIFY NEAR-TERM STRATEGIC NEEDS

DEVELOP TECHNOLOGY FORECAST IDENTIFY POTENTIAL USERS

IDENTIFY REQUIRED SKILL-SET

IDENTIFY SKILLS INVENTORY ASSESS SKILL GAPS

Figure 2.

An abbre viated m e thod ology for ide ntifying skill ne e ds.

ce sse s, m e th od of asse m bly an d quality re quire m e nts. Th e e x te n t of au tom atio n m u st be base d on e con om ic justification ( Mital 1992) as we ll as th e cap abilitie s of th e hum an s an d the e quipm e n t. Th e cap abilitie s of hum an s an d m ach in e s are e ssen tial for allocatin g fun ction s ( Mital et al. 1994 a, b) an d for th e fin al de te rm in ation of th e e quipm e nt n e e de d. Th e e xte n t of au tom ation as we ll as th e p articu lar e quipm e n t se le cte d will h ave a m ajor im pact on th e com ple xity of in struction s give n to th e h um an s to ope rate th e m ach in e s. Th e tim e an d cost of production as dictate d by the le ve l of autom ation an d th e typ e of e quipm e n t will h ave to be use d to e valu ate alte rn ate product de sign s. Th us, afte r the m e th od( s) of m an ufacture h ave be e n de te rm in e d for a particular product de sign option, the de sign sh ould be re e xam in e d to ide ntify opportun itie s for re de sign th at could dire ctly im pact th e production tim e an d cost, now base d on an un de rstandin g of the availab le e quipm e n t cap abilitie s. Th e allocation of fun ction s also provid e s a basis for de term in in g wh at skills the worke rs will n e e d. A com parison be twe e n th e availab le an d n e e de d skills

will ide n tify skill de ficie nc ie s that will have to be m ad e up th rough train ing. In th e de sign an d de ve lopm e n t of th e train in g program , it would be worth wh ile to conside r im m e diate , short-term , an d long-te rm skill re qu ire m e n ts. As sh own in figu re 2, th e se skill re quire m e n ts will be a function of the tech n ology fore cast. Base d on th is fore cast, th e com pan y sh ould ide n tify pote n tial u se rs, i.e . pe rson n e l in var ious fun ction al units th at will be affe cted by th e pre dicte d product an d proce ss ch an ge s. Th is activity should be don e by lowe r le ve l m an age m e n t an d re late d e n gin e e rin g pe rson n e l. Th e output of th is activity would be th e list of affe cte d fun c tion al un its an d th e corre spon din g pe rson n e l th at wou ld n e e d to be train e d . Usin g in te rvie w, surve ys an d oth e r d ata colle ction in strum e n ts, th e availab le skills in ve n tory of th e affe cte d pe rson n e l ne e ds to be de te rm in e d. By un de rstan din g the te ch n ology fore cast, the re quire d skill sets can be ide ntifie d. Th e asse ssm e n t of the gap s be twe e n th e availab le skills in ve n tory ( wh e re th e y are now) an d th e re quire d skill se ts ( wh e re the y n e e d to be ) will re sult in the skill gap s th at would n e e d to be fille d by ap propriate train ing.

Framework for train in g workers in man u factu rin g As th e re vie w in Se ction 3 in dicate s, th e de sign an d de ve lopm e n t of th e train in g m odu le will n e e d to conside r at th e ve ry le ast, th e followin g que stions: ( 1) ( 2) sh ould th e workers be train e d in seve ral skills or on ly a particular skill? sh ould th e focus be on buildin g up on availab le skills ( re training) or is th e tech n ology ch ose n such that it would am oun t to fre sh train ing ( for fre sh train ing, th e re sidual e ffe ct of olde r skills will n e e d to be con side re d) ? wh at train in g m e thod should be use d ( sim ulator, le cture , on -the -job, e tc.) ? wh at sh ould be th e pe rform an ce m e asure s trainin g should e nh an ce an d how are th e y re late d to worke rs pe rform an ce on th e actual job? wh at sh ould be th e crite ria for e valu atin g worke r proficie n cy durin g an d afte r train ing?

307

accoun t use rs, prod uct de sign con side ration s, m an ufacturin g te ch n ologie s, tech n ological ch an ge s, an d availab le worker skills.

Re f e re n ce s
ADLER, P. S., 1991, Capitalizing on ne w m an ufacturin g tech nologie s: curre nt proble m s and e m e rge nt tren ds in US industry. People an d Techn ology in the Workplace ( Washin gton: National Academ y Pre ss) . AMMERMAN , H. L., and PRATZER, F. C., 1977, Performance Conten t for Job Train in g. R & D Se rie s 121 125, Vols 1 5 ( Colum bu s, O H: Ce nte r for Vocational Education) . ANDERSO N, J. R., 1985, Cognitive Psychology an d its Implications ( Ne w Y ork: Fre em an) . ATKINSO N, J. W. and FEATHER, N. T., 1966, A Theory of Achievemen t Motivation ( Ne w Y ork: Wile y) . B ALDWIN, T. T., and FO RD, J. K., 1988, Tran sfer of training: a revie w and directions for future research. Personn el Psychology, 41, 63 105. B ANDURA, A., 1969, Prin ciples of Behaviou r Modification ( Ne w Y ork: Holt, Rine hart and Winston) . B ANDURA, A., 1977, Social Learnin g Theory ( En gle wood Cliffs, NJ, Pre ntice-Hall) . B ASS, B. M., and VAUGHAN, J. A., 1966, Trainin g in Indu stry: The Man agement of Learnin g ( Be lmon t, CA: Wadsworth) . B LACK, J. S., and MENDENHALL, M., 1990, Cross-cultural trainin g e ffe ctive ne ss: a revie w an d a the ore tical frame work for future re search. Academy of Man agement Review, 15, 113 136. B O O TH RO YD, G., 1990, In C.W. Alle n ( Ed .) Simu ltan eou s Engin eerin g In tegrating Man ufactu rin g an d Design ( De arborn , MI: Socie ty of Man ufacturing En gine e rs) , pp. 90 91. B O URNE, L. E. and EKSTRAND, B. R., 1973, Psychology: Its Principles and Mean in gs ( Hinsdale , IL: Dryde n) . B RADY, M., GERHARD, L. A., an d DAVIDSO N, H. F., 1984, Robotics and Artificial In telligence ( Be rlin: Sp ringe r-Verlag) . B RIGGS, L. J., 1968, Sequencing of In stru ction in Relation to Hierarchies of Competence ( Palo Alto, CA: Am e rican Institutes for Re se arch ) . B RO DNER, P., 1985, Skill-base d prod uction: th e supe rior con ce pt to unm an ned factory. In H.J. Bullinge r and H. J. Warn e cke ( Eds) Towards the Factory of the Fu ture ( Be rlin: Sprin ge r-Verlag) . B RO DNER, P., 1987, Strate gic option s for ne w produc tion system s: com pu te r an d h um an inte grate d m anufacturing. Com m ission of the Europ ean Com m un itie s, FAST Report, Bru sse ls, Be lgium . B ULLINGER, H. J., an d WARNECKE , H. J., ( Eds) , 1985, Factory of the Fu ture ( He ide lberg: Sp rin ger-Verlag) . B USHNELL, D. S., 1983, Trainin g for New Techn ology ( New Y ork: Pe rgam on Pre ss) . B UTERA, F., and T HURMAN, J. E. ( Eds) , 1984, Au tomation an d Work Design ( Am sterdam : North-Holland) . C AMPBELL , J. P., 1971, Pe rsonne l training and de ve lopm e nt. Ann u al Review of Psychology, 22, 565 602 C AMPBELL , J. P., 1988, Train ing de sign for perform ance im prove m e nt. In J.P. Cam pbe ll et al. ( Eds) , Produ ctivity in Organ izations ( San Francisco: Josse y-Bass) . C AMPBELL , J. P., DUNNETTE , M. D., LAWLER, E. E., III, and WEICK, K. E., Jr., 1970, Managerial Behavior, Performance, and Effectiven ess ( New Y ork: Mc Graw-Hill) .

( 3) ( 4)

( 5)

It should be n oted that th e train ing fram e work propose d in figure 1 an d brie fly discusse d above is sole ly base d on th e re vie w of publish e d train in g lite rature an d corre spon ding de ficie ncie s. Th e re are m an y issue s th at are still unre solve d. For e xam ple , is it be tte r to train worke rs in se ve ral skills ( cross-training) or a spe cific skill ( lon gitu din al train in g) ? Cle arly, crosstrain in g e n rich e s the in divid ual bu t m ay re sult in pe n alizin g e fficie ncy, wh e re as longitu dinal train ing will re ve rse th ose e ffe cts. Wh at sh ould be th e balan ce to ach ie ve e n rich m e n t as we ll as e fficie n cy? Suc h issue s ne e d to be ad dre ssed in future re se arch . Th e fact th at such issue s are ye t to be re solve d, h owe ve r, should n ot re strict us from de ve lopin g a ge n e ric train in g proc e ss fram e work. Such e fforts, at th e ve ry le ast, will focus atte n tion on issue s of im m e diate con ce rn th at future re se arch will ne e d to ad dre ss.

6. Su m m ary In th is pap e r we have e stablish e d the ne e d for train in g m an ufacturing worke rs in skills th e rap idly chan gin g te ch nology dictate s th e y have . Upgrad ing worke r skills is ne c e ssary not on ly for com pe ting su c c e ssfu lly in th e global m ar ke t bu t also for prope rly m an agin g ou r h um an re source s. We h ave provid e d a brief re vie w of th e trainin g lite rature , wh ich prim arily e xists in th e be h avioral scie n ce s are a, an d e stablish e d th at th e re are ce rtain de ficie n cie s ( for e xam ple , a se rious lack of on site industrial stud ie s) th at futu re train in g r e se arc h n e e d s to ad dre ss. Finally, we have provid e d a fram e wo rk for train in g m an u fac tu r in g wo r ke rs th at take s in to

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