System Digestive

Classes of Nutrients:
There are six classes of nutrients the body needs: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. It is important to consume their daily six nutrients to build and maintain healthy bodily function. Poor health can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients whether by excess or deficiency. Moreover, most of the nutrients are involved in cell signaling (as part of building blocks of hormones or hormonal signaling cascades), deficiency or excess of various nutrients affects hormonal function indirectly. So, as they largely regulate the expression of genes, hormones represent a link between nutrition and our genes are expressed in our phenotype. The strength and nature of this link are continually under investigation, however, recent observations have shown the crucial role of nutrition in hormonal activity and function and therefore health. As:

Carbohydrates:
They are most abundant molecules contain 3 elements such as: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Its basic units are the monosaccharides. The definition of carbohydrates is that they are aldehydes or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols and serve as a reserve. Are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides Monosaccharides: triose, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses Disaccharides: sucrose, maltose, isomaltose and lactose Polysaccharides: glycogen, starch and cellulose

Lipids:
Lipids are a group of organic molecules, most are biomolecules that are composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen and less oxygen, but can also contain phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen, have as their main feature being hydrophobic or insoluble in water and another in organic solvents. They also work for brain development, metabolism and growth and classified in Simple (unsaponifiable) such as: fatty acids, terpenes, eicosanoicos, steroids Complex (saponifiable) as: acylglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids, waxes

Proteins:
Proteins are biomolecules formed by linear chains of amino acids. Proteins play a key role in life and are more versatile biomolecules and more diverse. Are essential for the growth of the organism. They make a huge amount of different functions as: Structural. This is the most important function of a protein (collagen) Immunologic (antibodies) Enzyme (pepsin), Shrink (actin and myosin). homeostatic: assist in maintaining the pH (as they act as a chemical buffer) Signal transduction (rhodopsin) Protective or defensive (thrombin and fibrinogen

Enzyme:
An enzyme is a catalytic protein, which acts as a catalyst, accelerating a chemical reaction. Molecules which act on the enzymes are called substrates and products resulting are. The enzymes fall into two general classes: simple and complex The active enzyme holoenzymes is complete, the protein portion that is apoenzyme join a coefactor to catalyze chemical reactions.

Vitamins
Vitamins are similar to the energy nutrients in that they are organic molecules, but differ in the fact that the body does not get energy directly from these molecules. Instead, vitamins serve as enzyme assistants, or coenzymes. Some vitamins, specifically the B-complex vitamins, are directly involved in the processing of energy nutrients, specifically lipids and carbohydrates. Certain vitamins serve as protectors of the delicate cellular machinery. These are called the antioxidants and are best represented by vitamins C and E. Nutritionists divide the vitamins into two groups based upon how they interact with the body: The first are the water-soluble vitamins, a group that consists of vitaminC and the B vitamins. These vitamins are readily absorbed by

the digestive system and, with a few exceptions, do not require special processing. The other class, known as the fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K), are frequently treated in the same manner as the triglycerides, meaning that they are packaged into specialized lipoproteins and transported by the lymphatic system.

Minerals
Minerals are inorganic nutrients that play an important role in the regulation of many of the bodys metabolic functions. Like the vitamins, many minerals function as assistants to metabolic pathways. Still others help regulate body fluid levels, and some serve as structural components of bones. Minerals are also the major electrolytes in the circulatory system. Nutritionists divide minerals into two broad classes: the trace minerals and the major minerals. It is important to note that the terms trace and major do not reflect the importance of the mineral in the body, but rather the abundance of the mineral in the human body. Some minerals, such as sodium and potassium, are quickly absorbed from food and transported by the circulatory system. However, some minerals, such as calcium, are poorly absorbed by the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. health of the system, the age of the person, their sex, and other factors, such as pregnancy.

Water
While the average personmay not consider water to be a nutrient, in fact it is probably one of the most important nutrients for the digestive system. Is a water-based system that uses water to move nutrients, deliver digestive enzymes, lubricate the length of the gastrointestinal tract, and facilitate the absorption of nutrients into the circulatory and lymphatic systems. The average human requires about 2.65 quarts (approximately 2.5 liters) of water per day to meet the metabolic requirements of the body. A smaller amount is derived from chemical reactions within the body, such as dehydration synthesis reactions. This is a complex task and frequently involves the use of minerals such as potassium and sodium to establish concentration gradients to efficiently move water. The large intestine, or colon, is the major digestive organ responsible for this process.

The Upper Gastrointestinal Tract: Oral Cavity, Esophagus, and Stomach

This organ system of the human body is specialized for breaking down incoming food into the needed nutrients for the bodys vast array of metabolic functions. The majority of the organs in the human body are either directly or indirectly associated with the process of digestion. The organs of the GI tract are those that physically comprise the tube, also called the alimentary canal, which the food physically passes through. These include the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine (also called the colon). For convenience, the GI tract is frequently divided into two major sections for study. The upper GI tract consists of the oral cavity, esophagus, and stomach, as well as associated valves and accessory organs. The lower GI tract consists primarily of the small intestine and colon. This division, while practical from the standpoint of a reference book, also has some basisin physiological function.

The Oral Cavity The human mouth, also called the oral cavity or buccal cavity, is the entry point into the human digestive system. The oral cavity represents an area of intense activity for the body. Not only are nutrients initially processed in this location, but is also serves as the connecting point between the respiratory system and the outside environment, as well as the location of a significant amount of sensory input fromchemical receptors,most notably taste. The human mouth is the site of both mechanical and enzymatic digestive processes.

Salivary Glands Vital to the digestive functions of the oral cavity are the secretions of three pairs of accessory glands collectively called the salivary glands. These glands are identified by their location in the oral cavity. Two pairs are located along the bottom of the oral cavity. The sublingular glands are located just below the tongue, and the submandibular glands are positioned just beneath these, near the mandibula (jawbone). A third set,

called the parotid glands, are located just in front of, and slightly below, the ears. Saliva, the chemical secretion of the salivary glands, is actually a complex mixture that performs a variety of functions for the digestive system. Saliva is primarily water (99.5 percent), which serves to lubricate and moisten the digestive system. This small fraction contains important ions, such as potassium, chloride, sodium, and phosphates, which serve as pH buffers and activators of enzymatic activity. Mechanical Digestion In the oral cavity, the process of mechanical digestion serves several functions. First, the action of the teeth and tongue break the food into small portions so that it may be sent to the stomach via the esophagus. Second, the process of mechanical digestion increases the surface area of the food, allowing the secretions of the salivary glands to mix freely with the food and stimulating the action of the taste buds. The action of chewing, or mastication, is the first stage of mechanical digestion. The action of chewing, or mastication, is the first stage of mechanical digestion. The shape of the tooth determines its function in mechanical digestion. The combination of different types of teeth in the mouth allows for the processing of a large variety of foods, from protein-rich meats to nutritious vegetables and fruits. Without teeth, humans would be required to swallow food whole in much the same manner as snakes. As organisms with a high metabolic rate, we require a relatively rapid processing of incoming nutrients. The importance of the teeth in increasing the surface area of the food for later enzymatic digestion should not be underestimated. The second stage in the mechanical processing of the food involves the action of the tongue. By the action of the tongue, the food is lubricated with saliva to facilitate swallowing and to mix in the enzymes of the salivary glands. The tongue also participates in the swallow reflex through the action of the intrinsic muscles. This muscle group also controls the size and shape of the tongue and is involved with speech. Located on the tongue are a series of papillae, which are small projections of the tissue. It is the papillae that give the tongue its rough texture. The papillae are sometimes mistakenly referred to as the taste buds, but the taste buds are actually specialized receptors located at the base of certain types of papillae.

Swallowing Reflex As the bolus forms in the rear of the oral cavity, or pharynx, the swallowing reflex begins. Swallowing, or deglutition, is a staged process that is partly under voluntary control and partly a reflex action. Once the swallowing reflex has begun, the following four events occur in rapid succession: 1. The tongue moves upward against the roof (hard palate) of the mouth to prevent the food from reentering the oral cavity. 2. The uvula, an inverted-Y-shaped flap of skin at the rear of the mouth, moves upward to block the nasal passages. 3. The vocal cords in the larynx tightly close over the opening of the windpipe, or glottis. 4. As the bolus passes into the esophagus, it forces a flap of cartilaginous tissue called the epiglottis downward over the glottis as an added precaution to protect against the food entering the respiratory system. Layers of the Digestive System From the esophagus to the anus, the walls of the digestive tract have the same general structure, with minor variations in each organ to enable specific functions. Within the wall of the digestive tract are four major tissue layers. From outermost to innermost, they are the serosa, muscularis externa, submucosa, and muscosa. The serosa is the outermost layer of the digestive tract and is comprised of connective tissue. The serosa is important in that it forms a connection between the digestive tract and the mesentery. Directly under the serosa is a double layer of smooth muscle, the muscularis externa. These two muscle layers are the inner circular muscle and the outer longitudinal muscle. a nerve network called the myenteric plexus allows for regulation of activity from the involuntary control centers of the brain. The next layer inward is a dense section of connective tissue called the submucosa. Located within the submucosa are the major blood and lymphatic vessels, as well as another series of nerves called the submucous plexus that provides involuntary regulation of the layer. The innermost layer is the mucosa. This layer lines the interior of the digestive tract and thus is in direct contact with the nutrients passing through the system. The epithelial cells of the mucosa serve several functions, depending on the region of the gastrointestinal tract. Esophagus The esophagus is not a major digestive organ, since the bolus spends only a brief amount of time in the esophagus (between five and nine seconds), and since the mucosa tissue layer does not contain a large number of folds, there is almost no absorption of nutrients through the walls of the esophagus. Instead, the esophagus serves as a conduit from the oral cavity, through the thoracic region of the body and to the stomach.

Stomach The stomach is commonly recognized as a muscular sac that functions as a holding site for food before it enters into the small intestine, as well as the location where the food is mixed and partially digested by mechanical processes. When empty, a human stomach may have a volume as little as 50 millimeters. In comparison, when full, the stomach may contain almost 1 2 liters of food. The stomach contains the same tissue layers as are found in the esophagus, small intestine, and colon, with some important variations in the secretions and structure of the mucosa layer. Composition of Gastric Juice The stomach produces about 2 liters of gastric juice per day. In the stomach, the parietal cells are responsible for manufacturing hydrochloric acid. The manufacture of hydrochloric acid is an energy-intense process, and thus the parietal cells have an exceptionally high concentration of mitochondria to generate the needed energy. The hydrochloric acid serves a number of functions in the stomach. First, it distorts, or denatures, the structure of proteins, making them easier to digest. Second, the low pH of the hydrochloric acid activates the pepsinogen enzyme secreted by the chief cells. Finally, the low pH of the hydrochloric acid acts as a deterrent against bacterial contaminants in the food. Enzymatic Digestion The prime nutrient target of enzymatic digestion in the stomach is protein. The purpose of protein digestion in the stomach is to initialize the process by destabilizing the structure of the protein. Thus, the mechanisms of protein digestion in the stomach are very general, and not directed at one specific type of protein. There is no absorption of peptides or amino acids through the lining of the stomach. Mechanical Digestion The stomach is primarily an organ of mechanical digestion, whose purpose is to thoroughly mix the incoming food material with gastric juice, forming a semi-solid mixture called chyme. The purpose of these processes is to manipulate the chyme to the correct consistency, so that it can pass through the pyloric sphincter into the upper region of the small intestine, also called the duodenum, for digestion. Certain surgical procedures can also alter a bodys digestion patterns and are used as a means to treat severe obesity. The peristaltic contraction of the smooth muscle that is responsible for mixing the food with gastric juice to produce chyme is initiated in the fundus. However, the areas of the stomach differ in the strength of the smooth muscle and thus the intensity of the peristaltic action.

Regulating Stomach Motility The emptying of the stomach contents, also called motility, usually takes between two to four hours following completion of a meal and is dependent on a large number of factors. There are three distinct phases to stomach motility: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase. The cephalic phase refers to the interaction of the brain with the stomach. If chemical receptors detect the smell or taste of food, a signal is sent to the medulla oblongata in the brainstem, which relays a signal along the vagus nerves to the submucosal plexus in the stomach. The gastric phase involves the activity of the stomach. Two factors influence its activity. First, the amount of distention or stretching of the stomach lining. Second, the pH level of the stomach. The duodenum of the small intestine may also regulate the activity of the stomach during the intestinal phase. The duodenum primarily has an inhibitory effect on stomach motility. Distention of the duodenum, due to the presence of a large volume of chyme, initiates a neural response called the enterogastric reflex. The presence of partially digested carbohydrates and fats in the duodenum also activates an inhibitory pathway, but this pathway is based on the action of hormones. Absorption of Nutrients Very few nutrients are absorbed through the lining of the stomach, primarily due to the presence of the mucus layer, which isolates the mucosa tissue from the hydrochloric acid. However, water and some ions are able to be absorbed directly into the circulatory system. In addition, both ethyl alcohol and acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) are able to penetrate the mucus layer and enter into the circulatory system.

Quiz!
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Which are the types of nutrients? What are the best-known polysaccharides? Mention three functions of the proteins What types of vitamins exists? What is the most important nutrient?

6. Where begins the carbohydrates and lipids digestion? 7. 8. 9. Which are the four layers of all the digestive system? What is the acid of the gastric juice? Where begins the enzymatic digestion?

10. What is the purpose of the stomach? 11. How many types of surgery for resolve severe obesity are? Which are them?