GEOCHEMISTRY OF SANDSTONES FROM THE UPPER MIOCENE KUDANKULAM FORMATION,
SOUTHERN INDIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR PROVENANCE, WEATHERING, AND TECTONIC SETTING
J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN,1 YONG IL LEE, 2 SURENDRA P. VERMA,1 AND S. RAMASAMY3
1 Centro de Investigación en Energı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Priv. Xochicalco S/No., Col. Centro, Apartado Postal 34,
Temixco, Morelos 62580, México
e-mail: spv@mazatl.cie.unam.mx and johnparms@yahoo.com
2 School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, South Korea
3 Department of Geology, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai 600 025, India
ABSTRACT: Petrographic, major, trace, and rare earth element com-
positions of sandstones from the upper Miocene Kudankulam For-
mation, Southern India, have been investigated to determine their
provenance, tectonic setting, and weathering conditions. All sandstone
samples are highly enriched in quartz (Q) but poor in feldspar (F) and
lithic fragments (L). The major-element concentrations of these sand-
stones reveal the relative homogeneity of their source. Geochemically,
the Kudankulam sandstones are classified as arkose, subarkose, lith-
arenite, and sublitharenite. The CIA values (chemical index of alter-
ation; mean value ; 44.5) for these sandstones and the A–CN–K di-
agram suggest their low-weathering nature. Similarly, their Fe2O3* 1
MgO (mean ; 2.7), Al2O3/SiO2 (; 0.09), K2O/Na2O (; 2.2) ratios
and TiO2 contents (; 0.3) are consistent with a passive-margin setting.
The Eu/Eu* (; 0.5), (La/Lu)cn (; 21), La/Sc (; 5.9), Th/Sc (; 1.9),
La/Co (; 5.7), Th/Co (; 1.8), and Cr/Th (; 5.3) ratios support a
felsic source for these sandstones. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns
with LREE enrichment, flat HREE, and negative Eu anomaly also are
attributed to felsic source-rock characteristics for Kudankulam sand-
stones. Total REE concentrations of these sandstones reflect the vari-
ations in their grain-size fractions. The source rocks are probably iden-
tified to be Proterozoic gneisses, charnockites, and granites of the Ker-
ala Khondalite Belt, which must have been exposed at least since the
late Miocene. Finally, the unusual Ni enrichment in the Kudankulam
sandstones, unaccompanied by a similar enrichment in Cr, Co, and V,
may be related to either the presence of pyrite in the sandstones or,
more likely, the fractionation of garnet from the source rocks during
transportation.
INTRODUCTION
Sedimentary rocks are principal sources of information concerning past
conditions on the Earth’s surface. Clastic rocks may preserve detritus from
long-eroded source rocks and may provide the only available clues to the
composition and timing of exposure of such source rocks. Geochemistry
of sedimentary rocks may complement the petrographic data, especially
when the latter are ambiguous. The geochemical composition of sedimen-
tary rocks is a complex function of various variables such as source ma-
terial, weathering, transportation, physical sorting, and diagenesis (Middle-
ton 1960; Piper 1974; Bhatia 1983; McLennan 1989; Cox and Lowe 1995).
Examples of using geochemical data from sediments for understanding sed-
imentary processes such as weathering, provenance, diagenesis, sorting, and
recycling are increasing in the literature because of the sensitiveness of
some key trace elements in identifying minor components that are not read-
ily recognized petrographically (e.g., Hiscott 1984; Garver et al. 1996).
Several trace elements, such as the rare earth elements (REE; e.g., La,
Ce, Nd, Gd, Yb), Y, Th, Zr, Hf, Nb, and Sc are most suited for discrimi-
nations of provenance and tectonic setting because of their relatively low
mobility during sedimentary processes and their short residence times in
seawater (Holland 1978; Taylor and McLennan 1985). These elements
probably are transferred quantitatively into clastic sediments during weath-
ering and transportation, reflecting the signature of the parent materials,
JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 74, NO. 2, MARCH, 2004, P. 285–297
Copyright q 2004, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/04/074-285/$03.00
and hence are expected to be more useful in discriminating tectonic envi-
ronments and source-rock compositions than the major elements (Bhatia
and Crook 1986; McLennan 1989; Condie 1993).
Rocks of southern India are older than 2500 Ma, and they are regarded
to have been first exposed to the surface possibly during the Tertiary and,
at places, as late as the Quaternary (Singh and Rajamani 2001a, 2001b).
Geochemical characterisitics of Archean terranes are likely to be substan-
tially different than in younger environments. For example, granitic rocks
formed during the Archean are more commonly Na- and plagioclase-rich
granodiorites–tonalites, whereas during the Phanerozoic they tend to be
more K- and K-feldspar-rich granodiorites–monzonites–granites (Taylor
and McLennan 1985; Goodwin 1991). Thus, sedimentary rocks of any age,
derived primarily from Precambrian terranes, may be influenced by these
differences. On the basis of geochemistry of flood-plain sediments of the
Cauveri River, southern India (Fig. 1A), Singh and Rajamani (2001a) in-
terpreted that exhumation of Archean deep crustal rocks occurred in geo-
logically recent times. The purpose of this study is to identify the prove-
nance and to test the neotectonic activity in southern India by examining
geochemisty of upper Miocene–Pliocene sandstones cropping out in the
southern tip of the Indian Peninsula. To know the probable source rock for
the Kudankulam sandstones we compared our data with the gneisses, char-
nockites, and granites of Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt, southern India
(Chacko et al. 1992; Braun et al. 1996), which is located very near to our
study area (see the rectangle marked Kerala Khondalite Belt in Fig. 1A).
In addition, the geochemical features of clastic sedimentary rocks reflect
not only the nature and proportion of detrital components but also the
chemical characterisitcs of authigenic minerals formed during diagenesis.
Understanding the relative importance of these factors through geochemical
tools extends the knowledge of the processes that produced and affected
rock deposition and lithification (e.g., Fralick and Kronberg 1997 and ref-
erences therein). Enriched concentrations of certain trace elements such as
Ni, Cr, Co, and V are very important for discrimination of provenance and
tectonic setting. Some studied Kudankulam sandstones have enriched Ni
values but low contents of Cr, Co, and V. Detrital and/or diagenetic control,
and fractionation during transportation, on this peculiar geochemical feature
will be also addressed in this paper.
GEOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA
The Kudankulam area in Tamil Nadu, South India (Fig. 1A), forms the
southern extension of the Cauveri River Basin and is limited between Ti-
ruchendur in the northeast and Kanniyakumari (Cape Comorin) in the south
(Lat. 88 59 3099 N to 88 309 1299 N and Long. 778 309 1099 E to 788 109
1299 E).
The lithostratigraphy of the Kudankulam Formation comprises the meta-
morphosed Proterozoic and Tertiary sedimentary rocks (Paramasivam and
Srinivasan 1980). The older rocks include charnockites, quartzofeldspathic
gneiss, and granitic gneiss, whereas the Tertiary strata comprise calcareous
sandstone and fossiliferous limestone, which are overlain by subrecent to
recent soil cover. The sedimentary rocks include both clastic and carbonate
rocks with various faunal contents such as molluscs, bryozoans, foramin-
ifers, and fragments of red and blue-green algae (Armstrong Altrin Sam et
286 J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN ET AL.

FIG. 1.—A) Simplified geological map of Southern India showing the location of the study area (modified after Singh and Rajamani 2001b). The rectangle marked Kerala
Khondalite Belt refers to the area of probable source rocks (gneisses, charnockites, and granites of Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt; Chacko et al. 1992; Braun et al.
1996) for the Kudankulam sandstones. B) Simplified geological map of the Kudankulam area, showing sample locations.
 GEOCHEMISTRY OF SANDSTONES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA
FIG. 2.—Columnar sections of the Kudankulam Formation arranged in SW to NE direction, showing sample locations. Stratigraphic section names are according to the
nearest village (Fig. 1B). Blank crossed space in the Manapaud section represents the area with no exposures.
al. 2001). These Tertiary rocks were deposited directly over the Proterozoic
rocks, when a considerable proportion of the land along the coast was
occupied by the sea as a result of transgression during the Late Tertiary.
The contact between the older and Tertiary rocks is rather sinuous, sug-
gesting that the Tertiary rocks were deposited on a shallow continental
shelf or shoreline gently dipping towards the sea. The Kudankulam For-
mation was correlated with Karaikal beds, of late Miocene to Pliocene age
(Ramanathan 1979; Paramasivam and Srinivasan 1980). The last marine
transgression in southern India occurred in the early Miocene, and its in-
fluence can be observed in Gujarat in the western part of India, and also
in Kerala in the southern part (Fig. 1A; Bruckner 1988). On the eastern
flank of the Cauveri Basin in Sri Lanka, the Jaffna Formation is most
probably the equivalent formation to the Kudankulam Formation, on the
basis of the fossil assemblages and facies characteristics. The presence of
microfossils like Austritrillina howchini and Taberina malabarica places
the Jaffna Formation in the upper part of the upper Miocene, specifically
in the Burdigalian stage (Sahani 1979; Cooray 1984). Therefore, the Ku-
dankulam Formation is either of Burdigalian or of late Miocene–Pliocene
age.
Armstrong Altrin Sam and Ramasamy (1997, 1999) discussed the pe-
trography, stratigraphy, and depositional history of the Kudankulam For-
mation. The authors subdivided this formation into five lithostratigraphic
units: algal limestone, sandy shell limestone, silty clay, clastic limestone,
and calcareous sandstone (Fig. 1B). The facies association and the sediment
composition show that the Kudankulam carbonates were deposited in a
shallow marine nearshore environment (Ramasamy and Armstrong Altrin
Sam 1998). A preliminary stable-isotope study on the Kudankulam lime-
stone reveals that fresh-water circulation played a major role in diagenesis
(Armstrong Altrin Sam et al. 2001).
287
SAMPLING AND METHODS
From eight sections in the Kudankulam area (Fig. 2) fresh rock samples
were collected from outcrops exposed in stream cuts and road cuts and
were washed thoroughly in distilled water to remove dust contamination.
The samples were disaggregated by following the procedure adopted in
Cox and Lowe (1996). Grain-size analysis was carried out in a Ro-Tap
sieve shaker using American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM)
sieves ranging from—1.5 f to 4.25 f at 0.50 f intervals for 20 minutes
(Folk 1966). Cumulative curves were constructed to calculate the statistical
grain-size parameters (mean grain size and sorting values) by applying the
equations of Folk and Ward (1957). Twenty thin sections were selected for
detailed petrographic study. Four hundred framework grains were counted
from each thin section. Matrix and cement were not counted. The point
counts were done using both Gazzi–Dickinson (Gazzi 1966; Dickinson
1970) and traditional methods.
Forty-five samples were analyzed for major oxides using an analytical
method adopted from Shapiro and Brannock (1962) and Shapiro (1975).
Aliquots of 50 mg samples were fused with NaOH in a nickel crucible,
and one aliquot, solution A, was prepared for SiO2 and Al2O3 determina-
tion. Another aliquot, solution B, was prepared by digesting the samples
with HF 1 HCl 1 HNO3 acid mixture to estimate Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3*,
CaO, MgO, TiO2, and MnO. Total iron, silica, alumina, titania, and man-
ganese were determined using a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20 spectro-
photometer. Calcium and magnesium were determined by a titration meth-
od using EDTA with screened calcite and O-cresolpthalein complexion
indicator. Sodium and potassium were analyzed by using an Aimil flame
photometer calibrated using standard salt solutions. For the determination
of CaO in the silicate fraction, samples were separately treated with 1M
288 J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN ET AL.

TABLE 1.—Major-element concentrations in weight percent (wt. %) for sandstones of the Kudankulam Formation along with their mean grain size (MZ) and sample
standard deviation (S) in f units, Chemical index of alteration (CIA, Nesbitt and Young 1982), and Plagioclase index of alteration (PIA, Fedo et al. 1995).

Rock Type Arkose

Sample # E4 G2 F8 A2 D4 D2 C2 F5 E9 H8 E14 E3 D3 C6 E8 D1 H15
MZ 1.02 1.03 1.08 1.26 1.38 1.64 2.00 2.06 2.08 2.25 2.41 2.47 2.63 2.65 2.75 2.86 3.00
S 1.96 1.81 1.76 1.74 1.85 1.78 1.55 1.39 1.40 1.45 1.37 1.20 1.35 1.00 0.90 0.94 1.01
SiO2 63.98 46.88 47.20 65.80 60.40 49.80 54.20 52.47 49.79 60.72 56.81 56.21 52.74 53.73 50.98 45.33 62.29
TiO2 0.38 0.24 0.33 0.45 0.32 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.14 0.27 0.33 0.26 0.35 0.17 0.36 0.18 0.48
Al2O3 7.54 4.12 4.62 6.08 5.91 5.66 5.21 6.12 4.78 9.32 6.98 5.12 5.38 6.97 6.75 5.64 7.00
Fe2O3* 0.55 1.21 1.06 0.58 0.99 1.08 1.10 1.77 0.51 2.31 1.08 1.21 1.53 0.82 1.65 1.36 0.81
MnO 0.01 0.20 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03
MgO 1.20 0.75 0.58 1.05 1.65 1.27 1.04 0.78 0.91 0.66 0.56 0.71 1.05 0.64 0.61 0.88 1.21
CaO 13.61 20.81 17.71 13.50 16.40 21.50 18.70 14.62 19.92 13.46 17.52 14.50 16.16 15.21 16.58 24.77 13.52
Na2O 0.53 0.78 1.02 1.02 0.56 0.58 1.01 0.40 0.78 1.20 1.05 0.74 0.56 0.39 1.30 0.75 0.47
K2O 1.55 2.20 2.15 1.68 1.90 2.09 1.71 1.65 1.26 3.20 1.51 1.78 1.78 0.81 2.76 2.25 1.60
LOI 10.01 22.75 24.96 9.50 12.10 18.00 16.21 21.78 21.90 8.75 13.79 19.85 19.95 21.45 19.14 18.86 12.94
Sum 99.36 99.76 99.66 99.67 100.24 100.26 99.53 100.02 100.01 99.91 99.64 100.40 99.51 100.22 99.89 100.04 100.35
CaO* 3.94 0.72 2.05 2.79 2.63 2.47 1.77 2.69 1.61 3.04 1.98 1.89 1.73 2.89 1.34 1.29 2.41
CIA 43.70 45.31 37.40 41.50 43.23 42.34 43.63 45.49 46.16 45.95 50.07 43.76 47.30 50.12 48.67 48.39 50.41
PIA 42.18 40.15 29.79 38.70 40.32 38.43 40.77 43.85 44.79 43.84 50.07 40.70 45.92 50.14 47.67 47.24 50.54
K2O/Al2O3 0.21 0.53 0.47 0.28 0.32 0.37 0.33 0.27 0.26 0.34 0.22 0.35 0.33 0.12 0.41 0.40 0.23
K2O/Na2O 2.93 2.82 2.11 1.65 3.39 3.60 1.69 4.13 1.62 2.67 1.44 2.41 3.18 2.08 2.68 3.00 3.40
SiO2 /Al2O3 8.49 11.38 10.22 10.82 10.22 8.80 10.40 8.57 10.42 6.52 8.14 10.98 9.80 7.71 7.55 8.04 8.90
Al2O3 /SiO2 0.12 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11
Fe2O3* 1 MgO 1.96 2.55 2.20 1.81 3.00 2.86 2.57 3.26 1.82 3.26 1.91 2.38 3.24 1.85 2.80 2.76 2.31

Rock Type Arkose Subarkose

Sample # E6 H10 C3 Mean (n 5 20) E1 E2 F6 B2 B4 A1 H4 H6 F7 H2 C5 G3

MZ 3.02 3.13 3.25 2.2 6 0.8 1.18 1.20 1.20 1.29 1.47 1.50 1.50 1.57 1.68 1.81 1.89 2.01
S 0.96 0.90 0.80 1.36 6 0.38 1.95 1.92 1.85 1.86 1.25 1.46 1.08 1.10 1.05 0.97 1.01 0.92
SiO2 62.03 59.24 41.50 55 6 7 48.23 58.10 42.45 43.47 42.50 55.12 48.82 44.62 56.20 53.21 56.70 48.28
TiO2 0.26 0.16 0.20 0.29 6 0.10 0.39 0.27 0.32 0.33 0.28 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.26 0.44
Al2O3 9.58 8.52 6.04 6.4 6 1.5 3.78 4.68 1.98 1.65 2.45 4.14 3.01 2.41 4.89 3.01 4.56 2.98
Fe2O3* 2.57 2.06 0.87 1.3 6 0.6 0.98 1.06 0.61 0.65 1.05 1.18 2.05 1.10 0.71 0.91 1.36 0.65
MnO 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
MgO 0.85 0.70 0.75 0.89 6 0.28 1.21 1.29 1.30 1.80 0.99 0.72 0.73 0.74 1.20 0.48 0.98 0.44
CaO 15.28 13.49 27.51 17 6 4.0 21.98 19.00 30.63 31.63 30.01 14.63 20.02 29.16 18.60 15.21 16.00 19.34
Na2O 1.68 1.25 0.98 0.84 6 0.33 1.05 0.71 0.56 0.45 0.58 1.68 1.02 0.56 0.65 1.03 0.81 0.30
K2O 2.73 3.32 2.33 2.0 6 0.6 2.22 1.46 0.77 0.78 1.05 2.17 1.98 1.22 1.54 2.01 2.04 0.70
LOI 5.52 11.12 19.96 16 6 6 19.69 13.70 21.42 19.10 21.29 19.86 21.83 20.08 16.20 24.06 17.26 27.31
Sum 100.50 99.88 100.17 99.95 6 0.32 99.54 100.28 100.06 99.87 100.21 99.79 99.72 100.11 100.25 100.21 99.98 100.45
CaO* 2.60 1.69 1.37 2.2 6 0.8 0.85 2.38 0.52 0.50 0.50 0.55 0.63 0.55 1.68 0.96 1.97 1.19
CIA 47.84 49.41 47.69 45.9 6 3.4 39.98 39.81 42.31 39.82 44.96 40.38 37.74 42.64 45.78 34.89 39.03 46.60
PIA 46.93 48.99 46.16 44 6 5 29.62 36.07 38.05 32.82 41.35 32.25 23.49 36.19 43.87 19.52 32.37 45.55
K2O/Al2O3 0.28 0.39 0.39 0.32 6 0.10 0.59 0.31 0.39 0.47 0.43 0.52 0.66 0.51 0.31 0.67 0.45 0.23
K2O/Na2O 1.63 2.66 2.38 2.6 6 0.8 2.11 2.06 1.38 1.73 1.81 1.29 1.94 2.18 2.37 1.95 2.52 2.33
SiO2 /Al2O3 6.47 6.95 6.87 8.9 6 1.6 12.76 12.42 21.44 26.35 17.35 13.31 16.22 18.51 11.49 17.68 12.43 16.20
Al2O3 /SiO2 0.15 0.14 0.15 0.12 6 0.21 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.06
Fe2O3* 1 MgO 3.60 3.11 2.02 2.6 6 0.6 2.74 2.71 2.43 3.03 2.58 2.38 3.57 2.30 2.27 1.83 2.83 1.49

Rock Type Subarkose Litharenite Sublitharenite

Sample # F3 C7 Mean (n 5 14) G1 H1 F2 E13 G4 H3 B6 C4 F10 Mean (n 5 9) A3 G5

MZ 2.74 3.05 1.7 6 0.6 1.79 2.07 2.26 2.73 2.74 2.84 2.86 3.00 3.00 2.59 6 0.44 1.26 2.02
S 0.86 0.81 1.29 6 0.43 1.82 1.80 1.82 1.75 1.26 1.01 0.95 0.91 0.93 1.36 6 0.43 1.80 0.93
SiO2 55.30 58.00 51 6 8 53.21 50.01 55.08 53.49 61.60 55.99 54.29 59.45 56.96 55.6 6 3.5 47.37 49.10
TiO2 0.36 0.33 0.30 6 0.06 0.28 0.29 0.09 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.27 0.41 0.27 6 0.09 0.15 0.18
Al2O3 4.25 4.68 3.5 6 1.1 5.71 4.50 5.62 5.62 6.02 5.71 5.95 7.43 6.05 5.8 6 0.8 2.35 3.13
Fe2O3* 1.24 0.91 1.03 6 0.37 2.15 1.92 1.38 1.53 2.30 1.71 1.97 2.34 1.37 1.8 6 0.4 1.61 1.68
MnO 0.02 0.03 0.02 6 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 6 0.01 0.02 0.01
MgO 0.71 0.65 0.95 6 0.38 1.01 1.03 0.82 0.93 0.79 0.83 0.51 0.82 1.05 0.87 6 0.17 0.80 1.41
CaO 19.10 17.30 22 6 6 16.33 15.91 18.03 18.25 14.50 14.37 17.81 13.50 13.08 15.8 6 2.0 19.38 23.98
Na2O 0.86 0.69 0.78 6 0.34 0.84 1.51 0.30 0.63 0.63 0.81 0.40 0.95 0.50 0.73 6 0.36 0.77 0.54
K2O 2.23 2.01 1.6 6 0.6 1.25 0.78 0.85 1.00 1.85 1.10 0.95 1.24 1.23 1.14 6 0.32 0.75 0.93
LOI 15.83 14.90 19.5 6 3.7 19.53 23.53 17.71 18.54 11.72 18.89 18.29 14.02 19.23 17.9 6 3.4 26.51 19.10
Sum 99.90 99.50 99.99 6 0.29 100.32 99.50 99.89 100.21 99.73 99.72 100.49 100.04 99.89 99.98 6 0.32 99.71 100.06
CaO* 1.04 1.14 1.0 6 0.6 1.96 1.50 2.83 2.31 2.85 1.84 2.51 2.79 2.37 2.3 6 0.5 1.02 1.16
CIA 42.63 46.51 41.7 6 3.5 47.55 42.63 46.15 47.07 42.27 49.32 48.77 48.22 48.35 46.7 6 2.6 37.40 43.87
PIA 35.71 43.84 35 6 8 46.84 41.23 45.46 46.43 39.25 49.14 48.52 47.85 47.91 45.9 6 3.4 33.01 41.47
K2O/Al2O3 0.52 0.43 0.46 6 0.13 0.22 0.17 0.15 0.18 0.31 0.19 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.19 6 0.05 0.32 0.30
K2O/Na2O 2.59 2.91 2.08 6 0.45 1.49 0.52 2.83 1.59 2.94 1.36 2.38 1.31 2.46 1.9 6 0.8 0.97 1.72
SiO2 /Al2O3 13.01 12.39 15.8 6 4.2 9.32 11.11 9.80 9.52 10.23 9.81 9.12 8.00 9.42 9.6 6 0.8 20.16 15.69
Al2O3 /SiO2 0.08 0.08 0.07 6 0.01 0.11 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.10 6 0.01 0.05 0.06
Fe2O3* 1 MgO 2.32 1.84 2.4 6 0.5 3.91 3.88 2.68 3.01 3.51 3.14 3.02 3.67 3.00 3.31 6 0.44 3.29 3.82
CaO* 5 CaO in silicate phase; Fe2O3* 5 Total Fe expressed as Fe2O3.
 GEOCHEMISTRY OF SANDSTONES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA 289

FIG. 4.—Geochemical classification of Kudankulam sandstones using log(SiO2 /

Al2O3)—log(Fe2O3*/K2 O) diagram (after Herron 1988).

FIG. 3.—QFL diagram with tectonic fields of Dickinson and Suczek (1979). Q,
total quartz (monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains); F, feldspars (plagioclase
and K-feldspars); L, lithic rock fragments (excluding carbonates). Kudankulam sand-
stones (20 selected samples) fall entirely within the field of craton-interior sources.
cold dilute HCl acid before digestion and were analyzed separately. Our
chemical analyses have precisions better than 5% for all elements deter-
mined in our samples. The major-element data were recalculated on an
anhydrous (LOI-free) basis and adjusted to 100% before using them in
various diagrams.
Twenty-one representative samples were analyzed for trace-element and
REE geochemistry at the Korea Basic Science Institute. Trace-element (Ba,
Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Sc, Sr, V, Zn, and Zr) concentrations were determined
using a Jobin Yvon 138 Ultrace inductively coupled plasma atomic emis-
sion spectrometer (ICP-AES). REE and some additional trace elements (Cs,
Hf, Nb, Pb, Rb, Th, U, and Y) were analyzed by a VG Elemental PQII
Plus inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) using a
method given by Jarvis (1988). Analytical precision for trace elements and
REE is generally better than 5%. United States Geological Standard MAG-
1 was used for calibration. Three analyses were made for each sample and
averaged. For REE discussion we used chondrite normalization factors list-
ed in Taylor and McLennan (1985).
are common among the opaque grains. All sandstone samples contain mi-
nor amounts of feldspar grains (mean ; 10%). Both orthoclase and pla-
gioclase feldspars are present, but K-feldspar dominates. The rock frag-
ments are comparatively less abundant, and consist of dominantly sedi-
mentary rock fragments. The average quartz–feldspar–lithic fragment
(QFL) ratio is Q87:F10:L3. Most of the samples are free of matrix. On a
QFL diagram (Fig. 3) the Kudankulam sandstones plot in the field of a
craton-interior source, indicating that they were derived from igneous
source rocks (Dickinson and Suczek 1979).
Calcite cement occurs in all sandstones. Three types of calcite cements
are observed: micrite, microsparite, and sparry calcite. Calcite cement pro-
duced corrosion on detrital grains, particularly in quartz. Sparry calcite
cement is interpreted to have been formed by the movement of ground
water saturated with calcium carbonate.
Major Elements
The major-element concentrations of all Kudankulam sandstones are ar-
ranged in Table 1 according to rock type and decreasing mean grain size

RESULTS

Petrography
A textural study was carried out for the Kudankulam sandstones to char-
acterize grain-size variations. The mean grain size (MZ expressed in f
units) of quartz grains of the sandstones ranges from 1.02 f to 3.25 f
(Table 1), suggesting that the sand grains are medium to very fine in size.
The standard deviation values of sandstones vary from 0.80 f (moderately
sorted) to 1.96 f (poorly sorted; Table 1).
The framework grains are non-undulatory monocrystalline quartz (Qn),
undulatory monocrystalline quartz (Qu), polycrystalline quartz (Qp), K-
feldspar, plagioclase, and rock fragments. Quartz is the most abundant
framework grain in the sandstones, constituting on average 87% of rock
volume. Among quartz grains, Qn is dominant over Qu. Fluid globules and FIG. 5.—K2O/Na2O—SiO2 /Al2O3 bivariate plot for the Kudankulam sandstones.
tiny gas bubbles are present in Qn as transport lines, suggesting their ig- 1Sandstone samples from this study; average data for comparison are from 2Pettijohn
neous origin. Qp is a minor constituent and exhibits straight sub-grain et al. (1972); 3Chacko et al. (1992); 4Braun et al. (1996); 5Condie (1993); 6Taylor
boundaries. Heavy minerals such as garnets are rare; ilmenite and magnetite and McLennan (1985). UCC 5 upper continental crust.
290 J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN ET AL.

TABLE 2.—Trace-element concentrations in ppm for sandstones of the Kudankulam Formation.

Rock Type Arkose Subarkose

Sample # E4 A2 D4 D2 C2 H8 D1 E6 H10 C3 E2 F6 B2 B4
Mz 1.02 1.26 1.38 1.64 2.00 2.25 2.86 3.02 3.13 3.25 1.20 1.20 1.29 1.47
Ba 30.35 38.20 151.0 41.20 101.0 463.1 170.8 143.1 384.4 191.1 178.0 36.28 331.7 101.3
Co 1.32 1.74 1.04 3.01 2.64 2.97 3.05 5.36 5.36 2.64 4.85 1.43 1.75 4.84
Cr 5.88 13.73 21.00 14.68 10.30 2.42 27.98 24.87 24.96 20.55 24.90 7.82 3.89 15.00
Cs 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.20 3.96 0.20 0.38 9.37 0.26 0.66 0.06 0.08 0.33
Cu 7.06 7.08 22.70 11.20 16.40 17.40 4.25 27.55 62.53 7.58 12.60 13.25 11.47 9.25
Hf 0.40 0.62 0.83 0.29 0.85 1.57 1.42 1.41 3.27 1.33 0.63 0.36 0.59 0.89
Nb 0.73 6.01 4.81 1.79 1.47 6.66 6.08 9.27 8.71 4.45 1.28 0.80 3.34 5.05
Ni 26.82 24.00 106.0 33.60 30.70 544.0 175.8 159.0 441.1 200.0 62.40 30.20 359.4 111.2
Pb 2.07 6.02 12.50 35.30 4.37 15.83 7.68 7.61 33.02 11.51 7.20 3.81 4.27 40.00
Rb 5.41 7.30 13.50 8.63 10.80 100.1 29.85 24.63 222.6 31.07 17.00 6.77 22.34 13.38
Sc 1.82 1.64 4.07 1.97 2.03 2.83 3.92 5.19 4.22 4.95 5.08 1.55 1.70 1.59
Sr 87.06 50.20 103.0 95.3 120.0 192.4 56.45 141.2 51.38 165.6 82.9 72.35 166.0 99.0
Th 0.85 2.36 5.03 5.28 4.70 11.87 9.47 15.48 27.82 6.18 2.82 0.98 3.15 4.14
U 0.19 1.40 1.28 0.61 0.81 3.82 0.74 1.63 4.43 0.98 0.69 0.38 1.00 1.39
V 7.77 9.73 29.30 13.60 19.40 95.7 24.98 121.0 45.08 104.3 25.90 11.30 13.84 26.25
Y 5.07 8.81 7.09 7.02 6.83 17.52 12.60 8.14 27.70 3.51 3.09 5.25 1.76 3.21
Zn 2.82 28.40 16.90 13.80 18.50 31.42 9.24 32.67 74.16 50.59 4.71 9.78 8.26 17.25
Zr 4.71 4.80 31.00 6.09 5.73 27.80 35.22 26.33 67.13 27.89 10.40 3.04 8.99 18.25

(or increasing f values). Using the geochemical classification diagram of
Herron (1988) the Kudankulam sandstones are classified as arkose, subar-
kose, and litharenite, except for two samples that fall in the sublitharenite
field (Fig. 4). This classification is generally consistent with the petrograph-
ic data because on a QFL diagram these samples fall in the subarkose and
sublitharenite fields (Pettijohn et al. 1972).
Slight enrichment of SiO2 (wt. %) content in litharenite (the mean with
one-standard-deviation value being 56 6 4; number of samples n 5 9)
and arkose (55 6 7, n 5 20), as compared to subarkose (51 6 8, n 5
14) and sublitharenite (48.2 6 1.2, n 5 2) can be attributed to the variation
of quartz in these sandstones. The average Na2O content for the Kudank-
ulam sandstones (arkose 0.84 6 0.33, n 5 20; subarkose 0.78 6 0.34, n
5 14; litharenite 0.73 6 0.36, n 5 9; and sublitharenite 0.66 6 0.16, n
5 2) is less than 1%. The depletion of Na2O (, 1%) in all groups of
sandstones (Table 1) can be attributed to a relatively smaller amount of
Na-rich plagioclase in them, consistent with the petrographic data. K2O and
Na2O contents and their ratios (Table 1) also are consistent with the pet-
rographic observations, according to which K-feldspar dominates over pla-
gioclase feldspar. Al2O3 content is high in arkose (6.4 6 1.5, n 5 20) and
litharenite (5.9 6 0.8, n 5 9), but decreases in subarkose (3.5 6 1.1, n
5 14) and sublitharenite (2.7 6 0.6, n 5 2). Similarly, generally low
concentrations of Fe2O3* and TiO2 in all Kudankulam sandstones reflect
low abundances of heavy minerals such as Ti-bearing biotite, ilmenite,
titanite, and titaniferous magnetite in the analyzed samples. Average K2O/
Al2O3 ratios in arkose, subarkose, and sublitharenite are greater than 0.3
except in litharenite (; 0.2), indicating that most K2O is present in K-
feldspar.
On a K2O/Na2O—SiO2 /Al2O3 plot (Fig. 5) arkose and litharenite from
the Kudankulam Formation are generally similar to the average arkose and
litharenite rocks from the Bradore Formation in Labrador, Canada (Petti-
john et al. 1972). The Kudankulam sandstone samples fall away from av-
erage values of graywacke (Pettijohn et al. 1972), andesite, basalt 1 ko-
matiite (Condie 1993), as well as average UCC (Taylor and McLennan
1985). These sandstones are only slightly higher in K2O/Na2O and SiO2 /
Al2O3 ratios than gneisses, charnockites, and granites of the adjacent source
area (Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt of southern India; Chacko et al.
1992; Braun et al. 1996). Considering the somewhat mobile nature of these
major elements, the above observations suggest that these igneous rocks
could be a source for the Kudankulam sandstones.
Trace Elements
Trace-element concentrations of Kudankulam sandstones are reported in
Table 2. In comparison with average upper continental crust (UCC) the
concentrations of most trace elements are generally low. The average rel-
ative concentration ratios lie between 0.1 and 1, except for Ni, with con-
sistently much higher average relative concentration values (; 5.2–8.7),
and low values of Rb (; 0.05 for litharenite), Zr (; 0.06–0.07 for subar-
kose and sublitharenite), and Hf (; 0.07 for litharenite), in some rock
types (Fig. 6). In all groups of sandstones, Zr and Hf are somewhat depleted
as compared to the other elements, particularly Pb, Y, and U (Fig. 6).
Rare Earth Elements
The results of REE analysis are given in Table 3 and are shown as
chondrite-normalized patterns in Figure 7A for arkose and Figure 7B for
other rock types. SREE concentrations vary widely in Kudankulam sand-
stones (SREE ; 15–148). This wide variation is also characteristic of
individual rock types, e.g., arkose (; 15–148) and subarkose (; 20–108).
All analyzed sandstone samples have SREE abundances less than the av-
erage UCC (; 143; Taylor and McLennan 1985) except one arkose sample
(C3) with SREE 5 ; 148 (Table 3). All groups of the Kudankulam
sandstones show slight LREE-enriched and relatively flat HREE patterns
with negative Eu anomaly, except two subarkose samples (B2 and C7) with
practically no Eu anomaly (Table 3; Fig. 7B). These two samples also
contain higher contents of Sr, considering that both ions (Eu 21 and Sr 21 )
have comparable ionic sizes and thus tend to preferably substitute for Ca 21
in plagioclase (Gao and Wedepohl 1995).
DISCUSSION
Tectonic Setting
Roser and Korsch (1986) established a discrimination diagram using
log(K2O/Na2O) versus SiO2 to determine the tectonic setting of terrigenous
sedimentary rocks. These authors used CaO and LOI-free 100% adjusted
data to determine their field boundaries (see Fig. 12b in Roser and Korsch
1986). Both parameters (SiO2 and log(K2O/Na2O) values) increase from
volcanic-arc to active-continental-margin to passive-margin settings (Fig.
8A). Because all Kudankulam sandstone samples have a considerable
amount of CaO (; 13.1–31.6, 19 6 5, n 5 45), the major-element data
were recalculated to 100% and CaO and LOI-free basis before plotting
them in Figure 8A. This diagram (Fig. 8A) shows a passive-margin setting
for all groups of Kudankulam sandstones.
Discrimination of tectonic settings on the basis of major-element data
also was proposed by Bhatia (1983); it includes oceanic island arc, conti-
nental island arc, active continental margin, and passive margin. Most of
the Kudankulam sandstone samples fall in the general area of passive-
 GEOCHEMISTRY OF SANDSTONES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA 291

TABLE 2.—Extended.

Sublith-
Subarkose Litharenite arenite
H6 F7 C5 F3 C7 G4 G5
1.57 1.68 1.89 2.74 3.02 2.74 2.02
106.5 286.0 120.0 156.0 140.0 98.5 111.0
1.83 1.43 1.45 3.61 2.01 5.03 3.15
10.41 8.21 22.70 26.70 6.98 16.00 28.83
0.08 0.28 0.06 0.10 0.24 0.36 0.10
6.15 7.43 9.34 26.40 4.81 8.65 14.65
0.68 0.35 1.37 1.56 1.03 0.43 0.64
1.54 0.75 2.07 3.51 9.73 10.50 2.34
118.0 15.20 96.3 28.50 110.0 108.0 118.0
4.67 9.35 7.03 10.00 3.08 4.25 9.92
10.50 21.70 16.90 25.60 33.70 6.09 17.06
1.95 2.01 1.53 3.05 1.12 1.48 2.21
69.82 110.0 96.3 61.10 170.0 123.0 100.4
1.23 1.08 3.02 4.70 1.52 1.15 2.63
0.51 0.82 1.47 1.07 0.53 0.94 1.65
18.46 16.70 32.60 22.00 45.70 20.10 30.75 FIG. 6.—Multi-element normalized diagram for the Kudankulam sandstones, nor-
12.43 4.79 11.50 15.20 18.60 6.02 9.47 malized against average upper continental crust (Taylor and McLennan 1985), using
9.70 23.70 9.48 10.30 9.07 20.70 27.39 the following values (in ppm): Co 5 10, Ni 5 20, Cr 5 35, V 5 60, Sr 5 350,
4.97 19.60 5.01 25.40 28.00 19.30 11.77
Rb 5 112, Ba 5 550, Pb 5 20, Zr 5 190, Y 5 22, Nb 5 25, Hf 5 5.8, Th 5
10.7, and U 5 2.8. Two horizontal lines for rock/upper continental crust values of
1 and 0.1 are included for reference.
margin and active-continental-margin fields of the TiO2 versus Fe2O3* 1
MgO plot (Fig. 8B), but mostly in the passive-margin field of the Al2O3 /
SiO2 versus Fe2O3* 1 MgO diagram (Fig. 8C). Low values of Al2O3 /SiO2 et al. 1996) and UCC (Taylor and McLennan 1985) are shown, also for
ratio are an indication of the quartz enrichment in the Kudankulam sand- comparison. In the A–CN–K diagram all the Kudankulam sandstones plot
stones (Fig. 8C). close to the plagioclase K-feldspar line, as well as to the source rocks,
These discrimination diagrams suggest that the tectonic setting of the suggesting a low degree of chemical weathering of the Kudankulam sand-
Cauvery Basin in which Kudankulam sandstones were deposited was that stones. It is also indicated by their low values of the plagioclase index of
of a passive margin, which is consistent with general geology of the south- alteration (PIA; Fedo et al. 1995) (41 6 7, n 5 45; Table 1), calculated
ern Indian Peninsula. by the following equation (molecular proportions): PIA 5 [(Al2O32K2O)/
(Al2O3 1 CaO* 1 Na2O2K2O)] 3 100, and are consistent with the CIA
Weathering in the Source Area values.
However, the CIA values (mean ; 44.5) of the Kudankulam sandstones
Petrographic data show that K-feldspar dominates over plagioclase, are still slightly lower than those (close to 50) of upper-continental-crust
which may result from intense weathering in the source area or from dia- and Proterozoic rocks (Fig. 9). Thus, the low CIA values of the Kudank-
genetic alteration. The latter can be ruled out by the presence of abundant ulam sandstones do not reflect the general chemical weathering conditions
carbonate cement that developed probably during early diagenesis (Arms- in the source region, which can be inferred from the petrographic obser-
trong Altrin Sam et al. 2001). The intensity and duration of weathering in vations. This is probably due to the sedimentary sorting effect. Physical
sedimentary rocks can be evaluated by examining the relationships among sorting of sediment during transport and deposition leads to concentration
alkali and alkaline earth elements (Nesbitt and Young 1982, 1996). Feld- of quartz and feldspar with some heavy minerals in the coarse fraction and
spars are by far the most abundant of the reactive minerals. Consequently, of secondary lighter and more weatherable minerals in the suspended-load
the dominant process during chemical weathering of the upper crust is the sediments (Nath et al. 2000; Singh and Rajamani 2001b; Gu et al. 2002).
alteration of feldspars and the neoformation of clay minerals. During Furthermore, there is a significant positive correlation (Fig. 10A) be-
weathering, calcium, sodium, and potassium are largely removed from feld- tween the CIA and the mean grain size MZ (expressed in f) for the Ku-
spars (Nesbitt et al. 1980). The amount of these elements surviving in the dankulam sandstones. The linear correlation coefficient (r 5 0.72, n 5
soil profiles and in the associated sediments is a quantitative index of the 45) is statistically significant at a very strict significance level of 0.001 (or
intensity of weathering (Fedo et al. 1996; Nesbitt et al. 1997). A good confidence level of 99.9%). For individual rock types, this correlation is
measure of the degree of chemical weathering can be obtained by calcu- significant only for arkose (r 5 0.82, n 5 20) but not for other rock types
lation of the chemical index of alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young 1982) (subarkose, r 5 0.40, n 5 14; litharenite, r 5 0.39, n 5 9). The increase
using the formula (molecular proportions) in CIA with decreasing particle diameter (expressed in millimeters) for the
arkoses of the Kudankulam sandstone samples could suggest that the in-
CIA 5 [Al2 O3 /(Al2 O3 1 CaO* 1 Na2 O 1 K2 O)] 3 100 tensity of weathering increases from medium to fine or very fine sand.
Th/U in sedimentary rocks is of interest because weathering and recy-
where CaO* is the amount of CaO incorporated in the silicate fraction of cling is expected to result in oxidation and removal of U with a resultant
the rock. increase in this ratio. Although highly reduced sedimentary environments
CIA values for the Kudankulam sandstones vary from ; 34.9 to 50.4 can have enriched U leading to low Th/U ratios, weathering tends to result
(44.5 6 3.9, n 5 45; Table 1). For each group of Kudankulam sandstones in oxidation of insoluble U41 to soluble U61 with loss of solution and
CIA varies as follows: arkose (45.9 6 3.4, n 5 20); subarkose (41.7 6 elevation of Th/U ratios (McLennan et al. 1990; McLennan and Taylor
3.5, n 5 14); litharenite (46.7 6 2.6, n 5 9); and sublitharenite (40.6 6 1980, 1991). The Th/U ratios in the Kudankulam sandstones range from
4.6, n 5 2). The CIA values for the Kudankulam sandstones also are 1.22 to 12.80 (Table 3), with an overall mean value of 4.3 6 3.0 (n 5
plotted in Al2O3-(CaO* 1 Na2O)-K2O (A–CN–K) compositional space 21). Upper crustal igneous rocks have Th/U averaging about 3.8, with
(molecular proportions) in Figure 9. The compositions of average gneisses, considerable scatter (Taylor and McLennan 1985; Condie 1993; McLennan
charnockites, and granites from the source area (Chacko et al. 1992; Braun 2001). Considering the average Th/U ratio of the Kudankulam sandstones
292 J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN ET AL.

TABLE 3.—Rare-earth-element concentrations in ppm for sandstones of the Kudankulam Formation.

Rock Type Arkose Subarkose

Sample # E4 A2 D4 D2 C2 H8 D1 E6 H10 C3 E2 F6 B2 B4
MZ 1.02 1.26 1.38 1.64 2.00 2.25 2.86 3.02 3.13 3.25 1.20 1.20 1.29 1.47
La 3.84 11.21 10.60 6.93 12.00 15.83 22.85 25.36 27.70 37.07 3.97 4.96 12.39 9.06
Ce 5.98 9.63 12.00 21.20 18.20 32.75 44.96 52.79 56.37 53.46 13.10 7.23 20.89 16.63
Pr 0.80 0.98 1.24 1.07 1.63 3.26 5.06 6.22 5.89 7.68 1.97 1.02 2.22 2.04
Nd 2.85 4.51 6.24 4.21 8.76 11.40 18.36 22.19 19.96 29.60 4.32 3.74 7.59 7.33
Sm 0.51 0.91 1.08 0.57 1.40 2.49 3.12 3.65 4.21 5.54 0.89 0.69 1.15 1.22
Eu 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.11 0.35 0.29 0.55 0.21 0.40 1.19 0.16 0.12 0.34 0.11
Gd 0.60 0.68 0.83 0.92 2.02 2.50 2.85 2.80 4.25 6.26 1.46 0.81 0.78 1.01
Tb 0.90 0.08 0.19 0.12 0.30 0.42 0.41 0.36 0.72 0.88 0.23 0.12 0.09 0.13
Dy 0.53 0.42 0.98 0.82 1.42 2.66 2.26 1.79 4.51 5.03 1.38 0.71 0.44 0.66
Er 0.29 0.43 0.45 0.32 1.02 1.75 1.15 0.88 2.93 2.72 0.80 0.43 0.17 0.30
Tm 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.15 0.27 0.15 0.11 0.46 0.34 0.13 0.06 0.02 0.04
Yb 0.24 0.26 0.31 0.28 0.88 1.92 0.96 0.78 3.29 2.04 0.70 0.36 0.12 0.26
Lu 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.30 0.13 0.11 0.50 0.29 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.03
SREE 15.42 28.93 33.33 35.96 47.15 73.69 100.91 115.70 127.56 147.99 28.09 19.70 45.81 38.22
(LREE/HREE)§ 7.40 13.35 10.25 12.63 6.74 6.36 11.41 15.59 6.51 7.22 4.79 6.66 26.49 14.57
Eu/Eu* 0.44 0.26 0.34 0.46 0.64 0.35 0.55 0.19 0.29 0.62 0.43 0.49 1.04 0.29
Cr/Th 6.92 5.82 4.18 2.78 2.19 0.20 2.96 1.61 0.90 3.33 8.83 7.98 1.23 3.62
Cr/Ni 0.22 0.57 0.20 0.44 0.34 0.004 0.16 0.16 0.06 0.10 0.40 0.26 0.01 0.13
Cr/V 0.76 1.41 0.72 1.08 0.53 0.03 1.12 0.21 0.55 0.20 0.96 0.69 0.28 0.57
Y/Ni 0.19 0.37 0.07 0.21 0.22 0.03 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.17 0.005 0.03
Th/Sc 0.47 1.44 1.24 2.68 2.32 4.19 2.42 2.98 6.59 1.25 0.56 0.63 1.85 2.60
Th/U 4.47 1.69 3.93 8.66 5.80 3.11 12.80 9.50 6.28 6.31 4.09 2.58 3.15 2.98
Th/Co 0.64 1.36 4.84 1.75 1.78 4.00 3.11 2.89 5.19 2.34 0.58 0.69 1.80 0.86
La/Y 0.76 1.27 1.50 0.99 1.76 0.90 1.81 3.12 1.00 10.56 0.78 3.20 7.29 5.70
La/Co 2.91 6.44 10.19 2.30 4.55 5.33 7.49 4.73 5.17 14.04 0.82 3.47 7.08 1.87
La/Sc 2.11 6.84 2.60 3.52 5.91 5.59 5.83 4.89 6.56 7.49 0.78 3.20 7.29 5.70
(La/Lu)cn† 13.29 38.79 36.68 14.39 12.46 5.48 18.25 23.93 5.75 13.27 5.15 10.30 64.31 31.35
(Gd/Yb)cn† 2.03 2.12 2.16 2.66 1.86 1.06 2.41 2.91 1.05 2.49 1.69 1.82 5.27 3.15
§ (LREE/HREE) 5 S(La-Sm)/S(Gd-Lu); † Subscript cn refers to chondrite-normalized values.

close to the upper-continental-crust values, it is likely that these sandstones Provenance

were derived from the least weathered source rocks.
Hydraulic Sorting
It is widely accepted that hydraulic sorting can lead to variation in REE
concentrations in sediments with different grain-size fractions and mineral
contents (Cullers et al. 1975; Cullers et al. 1979; Gromet et al. 1984;
McLennan 1989). The observed variations in the SREE content for arkose
(73 6 47, n 5 10), subarkose (50 6 26, n 5 9), litharenite (51.3), and
sublitharenite (56.7) could be either due to weathering or to variation in
lithology. During weathering the REEs are relatively immobile, so only
minor enrichment or loss is expected. However, the LREE and HREE show
different types of behavior and may become fractionated (Cullers 1988;
Cullers et al. 1997; Condie et al. 1995; Condie et al. 2001). Thus, we
interpret the observed variations in SREE content of the Kudankulam sand-
stones to be due to variations in grain-size fractions of these sandstones.
Another possibility for the variations in SREE content among the Ku-
dankulam sandstones can be related to an influence of a quartz dilution
effect on abundance of heavy minerals and/or clay. However, we have
observed petrographically low abundance of clay and heavy minerals in
the Kudankulam sandstones. So the differences in SREE content may be
due to the variations in grain-size fractions (MZ ; 1.02–3.25 f) among
the samples, which may cause an enrichment or depletion of SREE content
depending on the actual grain-size values. This interpretation is supported
by significant correlation between SREE versus MZ (Fig. 10B). The linear
correlation coefficient (r 5 0.92, n 5 21) is statistically significant at the
very strict significance level of 0.001 (or confidence level of 99.9%) for
all the Kudankulam sandstones, and also for the individual rock types, e.g.,
arkose (r 5 0.98, n 5 10) and subarkose (r 5 0.94, n 5 9). The average
SREE contents in fine grain-size fractions are about 3 to 4 times higher
than those for medium grain-size fractions (Table 3). This strongly suggests
that the REEs are hosted mainly in fine and very fine grain-size fractions
than medium grain-size fractions as proposed by Cullers et al. (1979), Cull-
ers et al. (1988), Condie (1991), and Mongelli et al. (1996).
The high-field-strength elements (HFSE) such as Zr, Nb, Hf, Y, Th, and
U are preferentially partitioned into melts during crystallization (Feng and
Kerrich 1990), and as a result these elements are enriched in felsic rather
than mafic sources. Additionally, they are thought to reflect provenance
compositions as a consequence of their generally immobile behavior (Tay-
lor and McLennan 1985). The slightly higher contents of Nb, Y, U, and
Th in the samples with higher SREE probably reflects a control by grain-
size fractionation during transport, and may also suggest a contribution
from a felsic source with high concentration of these elements. The deple-
tion of Zr and Hf in all groups of sandstones could be related to the size
variation (r 5 0.70 for Zr vs. mean grain size Mz, expressed in f units,
and r 5 0.67 for Hf vs. Mz; n 5 21) and depletion of heavy-mineral
fractions such as zircon in the Kudankulam sandstones.
REE, Th, and Sc are quite useful for inferring crustal compositions,
because their distribution is not significantly affected by diagenesis and
metamorphism and is less affected by heavy-mineral fractionation than that
for elements such as Zr, Hf, and Sn (Cullers et al. 1979; Bhatia and Crook
1986; Wronkiewicz and Condie 1987; Cox et al. 1995; McLennan 2001;
Mongelli and Dinelli 2001). REE and Th abundances are higher in felsic
than in mafic igneous source rocks and in their weathered products, whereas
Co, Sc, and Cr are more concentrated in mafic than in felsic igneous rocks
and in their weathered products. Furthermore, ratios such as Eu/Eu*, (La/
Lu)cn, La/Sc, Th/Sc, La/Co, Th/Co, and Cr/Th are significantly different in
mafic and felsic source rocks and can therefore provide information about
the provenance of sedimentary rocks (Cullers et al. 1988; Wronkiewicz and
Condie 1989; Condie and Wronkiewicz 1990; Cullers 1994). In our study,
the Eu/Eu*, (La/Lu)cn, La/Sc, Th/Sc, La/Co, Th/Co, and Cr/Th values of
the Kudankulam sandstones are similar to the values for sediments derived
from felsic source rocks than those for mafic source rocks (Table 4), sug-
gesting that these sandstones probably were derived from felsic source
rocks.
Furthermore, the relative REE patterns and the size of the Eu anomaly
also have been used to infer sources of sedimentary rocks (Taylor and
 GEOCHEMISTRY OF SANDSTONES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA 293

TABLE 3.—Extended.

Sublith-
Subarkose Litharenite arenite
H6 F7 C5 F3 C7 G4 G5
1.57 1.68 1.89 2.74 3.05 2.74 2.02
11.40 9.27 13.50 20.10 21.70 8.40 13.21
15.15 20.40 18.40 25.36 40.50 23.50 23.34
2.52 2.14 2.78 3.71 7.02 2.67 2.89
9.77 8.20 10.10 15.70 25.30 9.20 10.65
2.00 1.48 2.01 2.86 4.97 2.13 1.93
0.47 0.12 0.12 0.32 1.08 0.30 0.42
2.26 0.66 0.75 2.02 1.79 2.63 1.97
0.34 0.10 0.15 0.32 0.35 0.34 0.28
2.05 0.65 1.21 2.78 2.98 1.68 1.63
1.13 0.26 0.31 1.06 2.37 0.92 0.86
0.15 0.03 0.05 0.15 0.31 0.13 0.11
0.93 0.16 0.27 1.01 1.97 0.73 0.70
0.13 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.27 0.11 0.09
46.61 42.94 48.69 73.07 108.49 51.34 56.71
5.56 20.96 15.65 8.68 9.13 6.73 8.82
0.67 0.32 0.25 0.39 0.91 0.39 0.65
8.46 7.60 7.52 5.68 4.59 13.91 10.96
0.09 0.54 0.24 0.94 0.06 0.15 0.24
0.56 0.49 0.70 1.21 0.15 0.80 0.94
0.11 0.32 0.12 0.53 0.17 0.06 0.08
0.63 0.54 1.97 1.54 1.36 0.78 1.19
2.41 1.32 2.05 4.39 2.87 1.22 1.59
0.67 0.76 2.08 1.30 0.76 0.23 0.83
5.85 4.61 8.82 6.59 19.38 5.68 5.98
6.23 6.48 9.31 5.57 10.80 1.67 4.19
5.85 4.61 8.82 6.59 19.38 5.68 5.98
9.10 32.08 46.72 23.19 8.34 7.93 15.24
1.97 3.34 2.25 1.62 0.74 2.94 2.28

McLennan 1985; Wronkiewicz and Condie 1989). Felsic igneous rocks

usually contain higher LREE/HREE ratios and negative Eu anomalies, and
mafic igneous rocks contain lower LREE/HREE ratios with little or no Eu
anomalies (Cullers 1994, 2000). Some tonalites or granodiorites derived
from eclogite melting may contain very large LREE/HREE ratios with little
or no Eu anomalies (Cullers and Graf 1984). In our study of the Kudank-
ulam sandstones, their high LREE/HREE ratio (11 6 6, n 5 21) and a
significant negative Eu anomaly (0.48 6 0.22, n 5 21) support felsic
igneous rocks as a possible source (Table 3). This interpretation is in agree-
ment with the result of a study on terrigenous sediments of Kudankulam
limestones (Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2003).
Source Rocks
In Figure 11, we used the REE data for the Kudankulam sandstones
compared with those for gneisses, charnockites, and granites of the southern
Indian Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt as a tool for determining their
source rocks (Fig. 1A; Chacko et al. 1992; Braun et al. 1996) as well as
with the UCC (Taylor and McLennan 1985). The general shapes of all
REE patterns for the sandstones (Fig. 11A) are similar to the source rocks
(Fig. 11B). However, in detail the sandstone samples have somewhat steep-
er patterns than the Kerala Khondalite Belt rocks. Clear negative Eu anom-
alies are present in most rock types, except for a granite sample. This
suggests that the Kudankulam sandstones could have been derived by the
contributions from nearby gneisses, charnockites, and granites (Kerala
Khondalite Belt source area in Fig. 1A).
Many samples have (Gd/Yb)cn ratios more than 2 (Table 3), suggesting
that these sediments were derived from sources having somewhat depleted
heavy rare earth elements whereas others have (Gd/Yb)cn ratios less than
2, which suggests that they were derived from less HREE-depleted Archean
or post-Archean sources, or a combination of both. The average ratios of
Proterozoic gneisses, charnockites, and granites from the source area (Chac-
ko et al. 1992; Braun et al. 1996) also are shown in this plot. These rock
types have (Gd/Yb)cn and Eu/Eu* ratios overlapping with the Kudankulam
FIG. 7.—Chondrite-normalized rare earth element plots for the Kudankulam sand-
stones with sample numbers and grain-size values (MZ 5 mean grain size, expressed
in f units; Table 1) given next to the sample numbers; Chondrite normalization
values are from Taylor and McLennan (1985). A) Arkose rocks; B) other rock types.
sandstones (Fig. 12), suggesting that the Kerala Khondalite Belt rocks (Fig.
1A) could have been the source rocks for the sandstones.
On the basis of the geochemistry of immature flood-plain sediments of
the Cauvery River, Singh and Rajamani (2001a, 2001b) interpreted the
exposed rocks in southern India to have been uplifted and exposed because
of the stress buildup by the Himalayan Orogeny. However, they stated that
the time of this uplift might have been anytime from the Cenozoic to as
late as the Quaternary. The present study can be used to constrain that the
Proterozoic rocks in southern India were already exposed in late Miocene
time and supplied sediments to the Kudankulam area.
Ni Enrichment
The ferromagnesian (or so-called compatible) trace elements Cr, Ni, Co,
and V show generally similar behavior in magmatic processes, but they
may be fractionated during weathering (Feng and Kerrich 1990). In the
studied samples, Cr, Co, and V are slightly depleted and Ni is highly
enriched with respect to the average composition of the UCC. This enrich-
ment in Ni may suggest some input of mafic materials from the source
terrane; however, the simultaneous depletion of Cr (16.08 6 8.56, n 5
21; Table 2), MgO (0.9 6 0.3, n 5 45; Table 1), and Cr/Th (5.3 6 3.6,
n 5 21; Table 3) ratio suggests that other factors could have played a role
in concentrating Ni in the sandstones.
High concentrations of Ni (50–130 ppm) and Cr (112–225 ppm) in flood-
plain sediments of the Cauvery River (Fig. 1A), were reported and inter-
294 J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN ET AL.

FIG. 9.—CIA ternary diagram, Al2O3 (A)—CaO* 1 Na2O (CN)—K2O (K), after
Nesbitt and Young (1982) (CaO* 5 CaO in silicate phase) showing 1Kudankulam
sandstones—this study, as well as average compositions of different rock types:
2UCC (upper continental crust) from Taylor and McLennan (1985); 3Chacko et al.

(1992); 4Braun et al. (1996).

FIG. 8.—Tectonic-setting discrimination diagrams for the Kudankulam sandstones.

The tectonic settings are named in each plot. A) SiO2—(K2O/Na2O) (after Roser
and Korsch 1986); B) Fe2O3* 1 MgO—TiO2 (after Bhatia 1983); C) Fe2O3* 1
MgO—Al2O3 /SiO2 (after Bhatia 1983).

preted to be a result of chemical weathering of mafic source rocks (Singh

and Rajamani 2001a). However, this interpretation of mafic source rocks
is not supported by concentrations of REE and other trace elements in the
Kudankulam sandstones (Table 4).
Garver et al. (1996) suggested that elevated Cr and Ni abundances (Cr
.150 ppm and Ni .100 ppm) and low Cr/Ni ratios (between 1.3 and 1.5) FIG. 10.—Bivariate plots for the Kudankulam sandstones. A) MZ—CIA [MZ 5
are indicative of ultramafic rocks in the source area of shales, although Cr/ grain size expressed in f units; CIA (chemical index of alteration) 5 [Al2O3 /(Al2O3
Ni ratios were much higher (. 3.0) for sandstones from the same area. 1 CaO* 1 Na2O 1 K2O)] 3 100]. B) MZ—(REE)T (total REE content).
 GEOCHEMISTRY OF SANDSTONES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA 295

TABLE 4.—Range of elemental ratios of Kudankulam sandstones in this study com-

pared to the ratios in similar fractions derived from felsic rocks, mafic rocks, and
upper continental crust.

Range of Sandstones Range of Sediment Range of Sediment Upper

Elemental from Kudankulam from Felsic from Mafic Continental
Ratio Formation1 (n 5 21) Sources 2 Sources 2 Crust3
Eu/Eu* 0.19–1.04 0.40–0.94 0.71–0.95 0.63
(La/Lu)cn 5.15–64 3.00–27.0 1.10–7.00 9.73
La/Sc 0.78–19.4 2.50–16.3 0.43–0.86 2.21
Th/Sc 0.47–6.59 0.84–20.5 0.05–0.22 0.79
La/Co 0.82–14.0 1.80–13.8 0.14–0.38 1.76
Th/Co 0.23–5.19 0.67–19.4 0.04–1.40 0.63
Cr/Th 0.20–13.9 4.00–15.0 25–500 7.76
1 This study.
2 Cullers (1994, 2000); Cullers and Podkovyrov (2000); Cullers et al. (1988).
3 McLennan (2001); Taylor and McLennan (1985).

Abundances of chromium and nickel in the Kudankulam sandstones are on

average 16 ppm and 138 ppm, respectively; Cr/Ni ratios range from ;
0.004 to 0.936 (0.25 6 0.22, n 5 21; Table 3), but are mostly below 0.5.
Although high Cr and Ni abundances are clearly suggestive of mafic and/
or ultramafic provenance, ultramafic lithologies in ophiolite sequences can
attain Cr/Ni ratios of 10 or greater (e.g., Jaques et al. 1983) and accordingly
the low Cr/Ni ratios in Kudankulam sandstones are not especially indicative
FIG. 12.—Plot of Eu/Eu* versus (Gd/Yb)cn for the Kudankulam sandstones. Fields
are after McLennan and Taylor (1991). The average upper continental crust (UCC)
and gneisses, charnockites, and granites from the Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt
of southern India also are included. 1Kudankulam sandstones, this study; 2Taylor
and McLennan (1985); 3Chacko et al. (1992); 4Braun et al. (1996).

of an ultramafic provenance. Therefore, the hypothesis proposed by Garver

FIG. 11.—Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for: A) sandstone samples from this
study and, for comparison, average upper continental crust (UCC) (1Kudankulam
sandstones, this study; 2Taylor and McLennan 1985); B) gneisses, charnockites, and
granites from the Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt of southern India (3Chacko et
al. 1992; 4Braun et al. 1996), which are used here to represent compositions of
source rocks.
et al. (1996) may not be applicable to the Kudankulam sandstones.
The low Cr/V ratios ; 0.03 to 1.41 (0.66 6 0.37, n 5 21) and the
variable Y/Ni ratios ; 0.005 to 0.533 (0.14 6 0.13, n 5 21; Table 3)
indicate that no ophiolite component is present in the Kudankulam sand-
stones (e.g., Hiscott 1984). Relatively high Ni contents in the Kudankulam
sandstones can be carried by orthopyroxene grains derived from charnock-
ites. These orthopyroxene grains may eventually break down to pyrite, a
mineral that may influence the ferromagnesian budget of sedimentary rocks.
In fact, pyrite is a common authigenic phase that may scavenge these el-
ements from pore waters after the breakdown of relatively unstable mafic
minerals such as pyroxene and hornblende (Bock et al. 1998). These au-
thors also showed that pyrite in their study had undetectable contents of
Cr (, 170 ppm, the detection limit of electron microprobe) and low V (,
13 ; 50 ppm) abundances but generally higher Ni abundances (up to 880
ppm). Thus, the enriched Ni contents and associated low contents of Cr
and V may suggest the presence of pyrite in Kudankulam sandstone sam-
ples. This should be confirmed in future by microprobe or X-ray analysis.
Yet another possibility, which we consider to be the most likely expla-
nation for the Ni positive anomaly in the Kudankulam sandstones (Fig. 6),
is fractionation of garnet between the source rocks and these sandstones.
Garnet is known to be present in the source rocks (Braun et al. 1996; Braun
1999) as well as in coastal sediments from southern India (Ramasamy et
al. 1996; Sabeen et al. 2002). Garnet has very high Cr/Ni ratios (; 115;
e.g., Glaser et al. 1999) and the partition coefficients for Ni, Cr, V, and
Co (e.g., Sisson and Bacon 1992; Torres-Alvarado et al. 2003) differ in
such a way that this mineral can strongly fractionate Ni from the other
elements, as is observed in the Kudankulam sandstones. Thus, it is possible
that the unusual Ni enrichment, unaccompanied by a similar enrichment in
Co, Cr, and V, is due to the fractionation of garnet from the source rocks
during transportation. Fractionation of garnets would also explain the small
differences observed in REE patterns (Figs. 11A, B) between the sandstone
samples and source rocks. Similarly, the slight shift of the Kudankulam
sandstones towards higher (Gd/Yb)cn values as compared to the source
rocks (Fig. 12) can also be readily explained by such a fractionation of
garnet. This fractionation may be related to one or more of several factors,
such as hydraulic sorting, mechanical abrasion, diminution of garnet grain
size and isolation from the sand fraction, and chemical weathering (e.g.,
296 J.S. ARMSTRONG-ALTRIN ET AL.
Morton et al. 1994; Nesbitt et al. 1997; Chigira and Oyama 1999; Morton
and Hallsworth 1999). Further research is needed to determine which of
these processes was the most important for the garnet fractionation in the
Kudankulam sandstones.
CONCLUSIONS
The K2O and Na2O values and their ratios in Kudankulam sandstones
indicate that K-feldspar dominates over plagioclase feldspar. The tectonic-
setting discrimination diagrams support a passive-margin setting for the
Kudankulam sandstones. The low CIA values (; 44.5) of the Kudankulam
sandstones do not reflect the general conditions of chemical weathering in
the source region. This probably is due to the sedimentary sorting effect.
Physical sorting of sediment during transport and deposition leads to con-
centration of quartz and feldspar with some heavy minerals in the coarse
fraction and of secondary lighter and more weatherable minerals in the
suspended-load sediments. The increase in CIA with decreasing grain-size
fractions reveals that the intensity of weathering increases from medium to
fine or very fine sand. Eu/Eu*, (La/Lu)cn, La/Sc, Th/Sc, La/Co, Th/Co, and
Cr/Th ratios and the REE patterns indicate the derivation of these sand-
stones from felsic igneous source rocks. The differences of the REE char-
acteristics of the Kudankulam sandstones probably do not reflect changes
in source composition; the differences can be explained by the variations
in grain-size fractions among these sandstones, suggesting that the REE
are hosted mainly in the fine and very fine size fractions than in the medium
size fractions. We conclude that the source rocks included gneisses, char-
nockites, and granites. The present study suggests that the Proterozoic rocks
in southern India were already exposed in late Miocene time and supplied
sediments to the Kudankulam area. The Ni enrichment unaccompanied by
an increase in Cr, Co, and V in the Kudankulam sandstones calls for new
studies to understand this rare observation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are thankful to Prof. S.P. Mohan, Head, Department of Geology,
University of Madras, for providing certain laboratory facilities through SAP-II and
UGC COSIST programs. The first author wishes to express his gratefulness to Rob-
ert L. Cullers, P.K. Banerjee, J. Madhavaraju, and S. Srinivasalu for their useful
suggestions and guidance during the course of this study. We are grateful to the
reviewers Giovanni Mongelli and Salvatore Critelli and Editor Mary J. Kraus and
Associate Editor Mark Johnsson for numerous helpful comments to improve our
paper. Technical editing by John B. Southard is highly appreciated. This research
was partly supported by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New
Delhi grant (24/239/98-EMR-II to SR) and Korea Science and Engineering Foun-
dation (KOSEF) grant (2000-2-13100-003-5 to YIL).
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Received 8 October 2002; accepted 28 August 2003.