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1
Li ne Codes
By
Amanj ot Si ngh
On the channel, we might want to send binary numbers
directly.
The resulting bit patterns on the channel might create a
static voltage, which is not desired.
Use line code to eliminate the average static voltage.
- Save power
- Save bandwidth (possibly)
Line Code
0 volt
5 volt
average
static voltage
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1
1
1
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Unipolar signaling: 1 = +A volt, 0 = 0 volt
Polar signaling: 1 = +A volt, 0 = -A volt
Biopolar signaling: 1 = +A or A, 0 = 0 volt
(Also called the alternate mark inversion AMI)
Machester signaling:
1 = +A (half duration) followed by A (half duration)
0 = -A (half duration) followed by +A (half duration)
Additional combinations can be made along with RZ
(return to zero) and NRZ (non return to zero).
Types of Line Code
4.4
Li ne codi ng schemes
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Self synchronization
Low probability of bit error
Spectral efficiency
Low transmission speed
Error detection capability
Transparency
Desi red Proper t i es of Line Code
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Li ne Coder
The i nput t o t he l i ne encoder i s t he out put
of t he A/ D conver t er or a sequence of val ues
a
n
t hat i s a f unct i on of t he dat a bi t
The out put of t he l i ne encoder i s a
wavef or m:
w her e f (t ) i s t he pul se shape and T
b
i s t he bi t per i od (T
b
=T
s
/ n f or n bi t
quant i zer )
n Thi s means t hat each l i ne code i s descr i bed by a symbol mappi ng
f unct i on a
n
and pul se shape f (t )
n Det ai l s of t hi s oper at i on ar e set by t he t ype of l i ne code t hat i s bei ng used
( ) ( )
n b
n
s t a f t nT

7
Goal s of Li ne Codi ng (qual i t i es t o l ook f or )
A l i ne code i s desi gned t o meet one or mor e of t he f ol l ow i ng goal s:
Sel f -synchr oni zat i on
The abi l i t y t o recover t i mi ng f rom t he si gnal i t sel f
That i s, sel f -cl ocki ng (sel f -synchr oni zat i on) - ease of cl ock l ock or
si gnal r ecover y f or symbol synchr oni zat i on
Long ser ies of ones and zeros coul d cause a probl em
Low pr obabi l i t y of bi t er r or
Recei ver needs t o be abl e t o di st i ngui sh t he w avef or m associ at ed
w it h a mar k f rom t he w avef or m associ at ed w it h a space
BER per for mance
r el at i ve i mmuni t y t o noi se
Er ror det ect i on capabi l i t y
enhances l ow pr obabi l i t y of er r or
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Spect r um Sui t abl e f or t he channel
Spect r um mat chi ng of t he channel
e.g. pr esence or absence of DC l evel
In some cases DC component s shoul d be avoi ded
The t ransmi ssion bandwi dt h shoul d be mi ni mi zed
Pow er Spect ral Densi t y
Par t i cul ar ly i t s val ue at zero
PSD of code shoul d be negl i gi bl e at t he f r equency near zer o
Tr ansmi ssi on Bandw i dt h
Shoul d be as smal l as possi bl e
Tr anspar ency
The proper t y t hat any ar bi t rar y symbol or bi t pat t er n can be
t ransmi t t ed and recei ved, i .e., al l possi bl e dat a sequence shoul d
be fai t hf ul l y reproduci bl e
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Summar y of M aj or Li ne Codes
Cat egor i es of Li ne Codes
Pol ar - Send pulse or negat i ve of pul se
Uni -pol ar - Send pulse or a 0
Bi pol ar (a.k.a. al t er nat e mar k i nver si on, pseudot er nar y)
Represent 1 by al t er nat i ng si gned pul ses
General i zed Pul se Shapes
NRZ -Pul se l ast s ent i re bi t per i od
Pol ar NRZ
Bi pol ar NRZ
RZ - Ret ur n t o Zero - pul se l ast s j ust hal f of bi t per i od
Pol ar RZ
Bi pol ar RZ
M anchest er Li ne Code
Send a 2- pul se for ei t her 1 (hi ghl ow) or 0 (l owhi gh)
Incl udes r i si ng and fal l i ng edge i n each pul se
No DC component
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When t he cat egor y and t he general i zed shapes ar e combi ned, w e have t he
f ol l ow i ng:
Pol ar NRZ:
Wi rel ess, radi o, and sat el l i t e appl i cat i ons pr imar i l y use Pol ar
NRZ because bandwi dt h i s preci ous
Uni pol ar NRZ
Tur n t he pul se ON for a 1, l eave t he pul se OFF for a 0
Usef ul for noncoher ent communi cat i on w here recei ver can t
deci de t he si gn of a pul se
f i ber opt i c communi cat i on of t en use t hi s si gnal i ng f or mat
Uni pol ar RZ
RZ si gnal i ng has bot h a r isi ng and fal l i ng edge of t he pul se
Thi s can be usef ul for t i mi ng and synchroni zat i on pur poses
11
Bi pol ar RZ
A uni pol ar l i ne code, except now w e al t er nat e
bet w een posi t i ve and negat i ve pul ses t o send a 1
Al t er nat i ng l i ke t hi s el i mi nat es t he DC component
Thi s is desi rable f or many channels t hat cannot
t ransmi t t he DC component s
Not e: There are many ot her var iat i ons of l i ne codes (see Fi g. 2.22,
page 80 for more)
12
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Commonl y Used Li ne Codes
Polar line codes use the antipodal mapping
Polar NRZ uses NRZ pulse shape
Polar RZ uses RZ pulse shape
, 1
, 0
n
n
n
A when X
a
A when X
+

'

13
Unipolar NRZ Line Code (on-off Signaling)
Uni pol ar non-ret ur n-t o-zero (NRZ) l i ne code i s def i ned by uni pol ar
mappi ng
In addi t i on, t he pul se shape f or uni pol ar NRZ i s:
w here T
b
i s t he bi t per i od
, 1
0, 0
n
n
n
A when X
a
when X
+

'

Where X
n
i s t he n
t h
dat a bi t
( ) , NRZ Pulse Shape
b
t
f t
T
_


,
14
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Bipolar Line Codes
With bipolar line codes a space is mapped to zero and a
mark is alternately mapped to -A and +A
n It i s al so cal l ed pseudot er nar y si gnal i ng or al t er nat e mar k i nversi on (AM I)
n Ei t her RZ or NRZ pul se shape can be used
, when 1 andlast mark
, when 1 and last mark
0, when 0
n
n n
n
A X A
a A X A
X
+

+
'

15
Manchester Line Codes
Manchester line codes use the antipodal mapping and
the following split-phase pulse shape:
4 4
( )
2 2
b b
b b
T T
t t
f t
T T
_ _
+




, ,
16
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Fi gure 3.15
Li ne codes for t he el ect r i cal
represent at i ons of bi nar y dat a.
(a) Uni pol ar NRZ si gnal i ng.
(b) Pol ar NRZ si gnal i ng.
(c) Uni pol ar RZ si gnal i ng.
(d) Bi pol ar RZ si gnal i ng.
(e) Spl i t -phase or M anchest er
code.
17
Compar i son of Li ne Codes
Sel f -synchroni zat i on
M anchest er codes have bui l t i n t i mi ng i nfor mat i on because t hey
al ways have a zero crossi ng i n t he cent er of t he pul se
Pol ar RZ codes t end t o be good because t he si gnal l evel al ways
goes t o zero for t he second hal f of t he pul se
NRZ si gnal s are not good for sel f -synchroni zat i on
Er ror pr obabi l i t y
Pol ar codes per for m bet t er (are more energy ef f i ci ent ) t han Uni -
pol ar or Bi pol ar codes
Channel char act er i st i cs
We need t o f i nd t he power spect ral densi t y (PSD) of t he l i ne codes
t o compare t he l i ne codes i n t er ms of t he channel charact er i st i cs
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Compar i sons of Li ne Codes
Di f f erent pul se shapes are used
t o cont rol t he spect r um of t he t ransmi t t ed si gnal (no DC val ue, bandw i dt h,
et c.)
guarant ee t ransi t ions ever y symbol i nt er val t o assi st i n symbol t imi ng
recover y
1. Pow er Spect ral Densi t y of Li ne Codes (see Fi g. 2.23, Page 90)
Af t er l i ne codi ng, t he pulses may be f i l t ered or shaped t o f ur t her i mprove
t here proper t ies such as
Spect ral ef f i ciency
Immuni t y t o Int ersymbol Int er ference
Di st inct i on bet w een Li ne Codi ng and Pul se Shapi ng i s not easy
2. DC Component and Bandw i dt h
DC Component s
Uni pol ar NRZ, pol ar NRZ, and uni polar RZ al l have DC component s
Bi pol ar RZ and M anchest er NRZ do not have DC component s
19
Di f f er ent i al Encodi ng
(a) Original binary data. (b) Differentially encoded data, assuming
reference bit 1. (c) Waveform of differentially encoded data using
unipolar NRZ signaling.
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Di f f er ent i al Codi ng
Encodi ng
encoded(k) = encoded(k 1) XOR or iginal(k)
w her e k st ar t s f rom 0
Encoded(-1) is cal l ed t he r ef er ence bi t w hi ch can be
ei t her 1 or 0
Decoding
or iginal(k) = encoded (k 1) XOR encoded(k)
w her e k st ar t s f rom 0
Ref er ence bit r emai ns same f or bot h encoding and
decoding process
21
22
Sour ces of Cor r upt i on i n t he sampl ed,
quant i zed and t ransmi t t ed pul ses
Channel Ef f ect s
Channel Noi se (AWGN, Whi t e Noi se, Ther mal et c)
Int er symbol Int er f er ence (ISI)
Sampl i ng and Quant i zat i on Ef f ect s
Quant i zat i on (Granular it y) Noi se
Quant i zer Sat urat i on or Over l oad Noi se
Timi ng Ji t t er
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Sect i on 2.8.4: Bi t s per PCM Wor d and Bi t s per Symbol
L=2
l
Sect i on 2.8.5: M -ar y Pul se M odul at i on Wavef or ms
M = 2
k
Pr obl em 2.14: The i nf or mat i on i n an anal og w avef or m, w hose
maxi mum f r equency f
m
=4000Hz, i s t o be t r ansmi t t ed usi ng a 16-l evel
PAM syst em. The quant i zat i on must not exceed 1% of t he peak-t o-
peak anal og si gnal .
(a) What i s t he mi ni mum number of bi t s per sampl e or bi t s per PCM
w or d t hat shoul d be used i n t hi s syst em?
(b) What i s t he mi ni mum r equi r ed sampl i ng r at e, and w hat i s t he
r esul t i ng bi t rat e?
(c) What i s t he 16-ar y PAM symbol Tr ansmi ssi on r at e?
Bit s per PCM word and M -ar y M odulat ion
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On the channel, we might want to send binary numbers
directly.
The resulting bit patterns on the channel might create a
static voltage, which is not desired.
Use line code to eliminate the average static voltage.
- Save power
- Save bandwidth (possibly)
Line Code
0 volt
5 volt
average
static voltage
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1
1
1
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Unipolar signaling: 1 = +A volt, 0 = 0 volt
Polar signaling: 1 = +A volt, 0 = -A volt
Biopolar signaling: 1 = +A or A, 0 = 0 volt
(Also called the alternate mark inversion AMI)
Machester signaling:
1 = +A (half duration) followed by A (half duration)
0 = -A (half duration) followed by +A (half duration)
Additional combinations can be made along with RZ
(return to zero) and NRZ (non return to zero).
Types of Line Code
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Self synchronization
Low probability of bit error
Spectral efficiency
Low transmission speed
Error detection capability
Transparency
Desi red Proper t i es of Line Code
Power Spect ral Densi t y f or Li ne Code
(We w il l not f ol l ow t he det ai l s i n t he book.)
) (
1
lim ) (
symbol. for the value data is
). ( 0 for observed signal the is ) (
pulse. symbol a is ) ( where
) ( ) ( source, At the
2
th
1
t w
T
f
n a
NT T T t t w
t f
nT t f a t w
T T s
n
b T
N
n
b n T

< <

P
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Eye Pat t er n
Seen i n osci l l oscope
The Cl eaner, t he bet t er
Good i ndi cat i on of t ransmi ssi on qual i t y
Regenerat ive Repeat er
( )
( )

,
_

,
_

m
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i
e
i m
e
i
e me
i
i m
e
i
e i
mP P P
i
m
m P
m i
P P P
i
m
P
m
P
odd is
1
e
1 repeaters ve regenerati after error in bit a y probabilit
place. take errors of number odd an if
error, in be bit will this repeaters, ve regenerati After repeaters. ve regenerati by
d regenerate ly incorrecte is bit s y that thi probabilit the is where 1
repeaters, ve regenerati of series a through go to bit were this If repeater. ve regenerati
a by d regenerate y incorrectl is bit s y that thi probabilit bit, given any for Suppose
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Bi t Synchroni zat i on
To accurately detect received signals,
synchronization timing is needed.
- derived from received data
- separate signal sent from source
Synchronization
- bit level
- frame level
- carrier level
Binar y-t o-M ul t il evel Conversi on
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Spect ral Ef f iciency

,
_

N
S
B
C

B
R

1 log : Shannon By
second. per bits efficiency Spectral . Definition
2 max
Line Code First Null Bandwidth Spectral Efficiency
(Hz) =R/B bits/s
Unipolar NRZ R 1
Polar NRZ R 1
Unipolar RZ 2R 0.5
Bipolar RZ R 1
Manchester NRZ 2R 0.5
Multilevel polar NRZ R/l l
No channel has infinite bandwidth
Most transmission schemes require higher bandwidth than available in the
channel.
- Square wave requires infinite bandwidth.
- Synch function is not possible due to causality violation.
- Modified synch function to satisfy the causality requires higher bandwidth.
Each symbol may be smeared into adjacent time slots.
Intersymbol Interference (ISI) is the spreading of symbol pulses from
one slot into adjacent slots.
Int er symbol Int er f er ence