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Tyre Technology Annual 2009
Tyre Technology Annual 2009
Tyre Technology Annual 2009
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1
10 Improving key tire performance
Dr Joachim Neubauer, Michelin, France
14 Tire pressure maintenance: a statistical investigation
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, USA
22 Partial replacement of silica with microcrystalline cellulose in rubber composites
Wen Bai & Kaichang Li, Department of Wood Science and Engineering,
Oregon State University, USA
32 Uniformity: a crucial attribute of tire/wheel assemblies
Marion Pottinger, MEngineering, USA
40 Comparison of tire models and their application for vehicle system dynamics
P. Lugner & M. Plchl, University of Technology, Austria
48 Exceeding aircraft tire speed during take-off
Ingrid Wakefield, flight operations engineer & Chris Dubuque, service engineer,
landing gear systems, The Boeing Company, USA
52 Estimating tire-road friction for chassis-control and driver-assistance systems
Marco Pesce, vehicle systems, vehicle dynamics and fuel economy,
Centro Ricerche Fiat SCpA, Italy
54 Viscoelastic analysis of rolling tires using the finite element method
Mir Hamid Reza Ghoreishy, Iran Polymer and Petrochemical Institute, Iran
59 Noise and rolling resistance: is there a conflict?
Jerzy Ejsmont & Grzegorz Ronowski, Technical University of Gdansk, Poland
62 Misuse load cases and MBS simulation
Prof Dr-Ing Ch Oertel, FH Brandenburg (Brandenburg University of Applied
Sciences), Germany
66 Tire-road contact information for driver assistance systems: an optical sensor
approach
Ari J. Tuononen, Helsinki University of Technology (TKK), Finland
70 Tire-sand interaction research for lunar applications
Jaifeng Jeff Ma & Professor Joshua Summers, Clemson University, USA
76 Europes new regulatory framework: requiring and inspiring new technology
and innovation
Fazilet Cinaralp, secretary general, European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers
Association (ETRMA), Belgium
78 A universal flexometer and dynamic mechanical thermal spectrometer
Horst Deckmann, Gabo Qualimeter Testanlagen GmbH, Germany
82 From golf balls to rolling resistance
Dr Heike Kloppenburg & David Hardy, Performance Butadiene Rubbers,
Lanxess Deutschland GmbH, Germany
88 Fatigue test machine for crack growth testing
Hugues Baurier, 01dB-Metravib, France
92 Final-finish tire testing: what is the true cost?
Shaun M. Immel, Micro-Poise, USA
98 Getting a grip on future tires
Marika Rangstedt, Nynas, Sweden
100 Cutting-edge adhesion promoters for the tire industry
Marcus Bayer & Elke Gebauer, EMS-Griltech, Switzerland
105 Engineered solutions for niche applications
Dr Berrin Yilmaz, Kordsa Global, Turkey
SECTION 1: DESIGN, MATERIALS, TESTING, AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES
SECTION 2: PRODUCTION, QUALITY, AND RECYCLING
110 Curing rubber compounds efficiently and cost-effectively
Ali Ansarifar, Department of Materials, Loughborough University, UK;
Co-authors: Li Wang, Saeed Ostad Movahed and Farhan Saeed, Department of
Materials, Loughborough University, UK; and K. Ansar Yasin, Department of
Chemistry, The University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, Azad,
Kashmir, Pakistan and S. Hameed, Department of Chemistry, Quaid-i-Azam
University, Islamabad, Pakistan
116 Increased production rate through improved bladder compound
Maryam Mokhtarimehr & A.G. Moteshareie, laboratory manager
and compounding manager respectively of Dena Tire, Iran
118 Rubber devulcanization: a successful project
Andrew James, Smithers Rapra Technology, UK
120 Tire industry innovations including co-extrusion heads and Ethernet line control
Dr Tim Pohl, Troester GmbH & Co KG, Germany
124 Automatic bead apex stacking and loading into a tire building machine
J.K. Grashuis, VMI-Group, the Netherlands
128 Web width measuring systems
Andreas Flter & Sabine Sladky, BST International GmbH, Germany
130 Tire molding: the final step in the tire production chain
Rainer Hilke, A-Z Formen- und Maschinenbau GmbH, Germany
132 The importance of checking the length, width, weight and profile of cut tread
Dr Hartwig Suhr, Dr Noll GmbH, Germany
Member of the Audit
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Deputy editor Jon Lawson
Associate editor Roger Williams
Editorial assistant Bunny Richards
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Sub-editor William Baker
Production manager Ian Donovan
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Doran, Lewis Hopkins, Emma Uwins
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Design and production team
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Tire Technology International is
published quarterly together with
an Annual Technology Review. The
views expressed in the articles and
technical papers are those of the
authors and are not necessarily
endorsed by the publisher. While
every care has been taken during
production, the publisher does not
accept any liability for errors that
may have occurred.
Subscriptions 50/US$105
Four issues plus Annual Review
ISSN 1462-4729
Tire Technology International
This publication is protected by
copyright 2009.
Published by UKIP Media & Events Ltd,
Abinger House, Church Street, Dorking,
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tel: +44 1306 743744
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Printed by William Gibbons, Willenhall,
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Published by
2009
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2 54.6
3 52.0 58.8
4 43.5 48.2 55.4
5 45.2 49.7 56.2
a t
5
: The time required for increasing the viscosity above the minimum viscosity by 5 units
b t
10
: The time required for increasing the viscosity above the minimum viscosity by 10 units
c t
35
: The time required for increasing the viscosity above the minimum viscosity by 35 units
d (): Data were not available because the viscosity did not increase by 10 units or 35 units
when the test was done at 60 min.
Figure 3: The apparent shear stresses in each
batch at two different apparent shear velocities
500 s
-1
(Q) and 1,000 s
-1
(V)
Figure 4: The apparent shear viscosities in each
batch at two different apparent shear velocities
of 500 s
-1
(Q) and 1,000 s
-1
(V).
27
The next three columns show the
initial viscosity, the Mooney viscosity,
and the viscosity differences (6) for those
rubber composites that have been aged
for one week (Table 3). The one-week
aging significantly increased the initial
viscosity and the Mooney viscosity for
all batches (Table 3). Both the initial
viscosity and the Mooney viscosity for
one-week-aged rubber composites
gradually decreased from Batch 1 to Batch
5. In other words, the initial viscosity
and the Mooney viscosity both decreased
along with increasing the MCC content
in the rubber composites.
The viscosity difference between the
Mooney viscosity and the initial viscosity
slightly increased from Batch 1 to Batch 2
and then gradually decreased from Batch
2 to Batch 5, which implied that addition
of MCC facilitated the process of aged
rubber composites into different products.
For those rubber composites that had
been aged for two weeks, the initial
viscosity, the Mooney viscosity, and the
viscosity difference between the Mooney
viscosity and the initial viscosity all
decreased when the MCC content
increased from Batch 1 to Batch 5 (Table
3). These results demonstrated that the
replacement of silica by MCC facilitated
the processes of aged rubber composites.
For the rubber composites from each
batch, the initial viscosity and the Mooney
viscosity both increased when the aging
time was increased (Table 3). During
storage, i.e. aging, fillers tend to migrate
and aggregate, which results in the
viscosity increase. After the rubber
composites were aged for either one week
or two weeks, the net gain of the initial
viscosity and the net gain of the Mooney
viscosity for each batch decreased along
with the increase in the MCC content
from Batch 1 to Batch 5. We speculate
that the following reasons may contribute
the decrease in the net gains of the
viscosities: 1) MCC has lower tendency
to aggregate than silica and carbon black.
The net gains of the viscosities would be
smaller for the rubber composites with
a higher MCC content even if all fillers
have the same migration rates; 2) MCC
slows down the migration of the other
two fillers, silica and carbon black; 3)
MCC interferes with the aggregation
of silica and carbon black.
Pre-vulcanization
characteristics
Table 4 shows the t
5
, t
10
and t
35
of
all rubber composites. The t
5
gradually
decreased when the MCC content
increased from Batch 1 to Batch 4, and
then slightly increased from Batch 4
to Batch 5. The t
10
was longer than 60
minutes because the viscosity did not
increase by 10 units when the test was
done at 60 minutes. The t
10
decreased
from Batch 3 to Batch 4 and then
remained roughly the same from Batch
4 to Batch 5. The t
35
for the Batches 1-3
was longer than 60 minutes because the
viscosity did not increase by 35 units
when the test was done at 60 minutes.
The t
35
for Batch 4 and Batch 5 was not
significantly different.
Generally speaking, the t
5
, t
10
and t
35
indicate the pre-vulcanization
characteristics during processing. If the
t
5
, t
10
and t
35
are too low, the rubber
composites are vulcanized too fast, which
means that the viscosity increases too fast
to allow the rubber composites to take a
shape of the resulting products. Therefore
the t
5
, t
10
and t
35
have to be sufficiently
high. Batch 1 is a typical recipe for rubber
tire application. The pre-vulcanization
characteristics of a new rubber composite
are considered desirable if its t
5
, t
10
and t
35
are close to those of Batch 1. The results
from Table 4 suggested that MCC
decreased the t
5
, t
10
and t
35
to some extent.
As shown in Table 3, MCC decreased the
initial viscosity and the Mooney viscosity
of unaged and aged rubber composites.
In other words, the rubber composites
containing MCC have a lower viscosity
than Batch 1 before any process. When
compared with Batch 1, the lower initial
viscosity will offset the faster increase in
the viscosity (i.e. the lower t
5
, t
10
and t
35
)
during a vulcanization process. Therefore
the lower t
5
, t
10
and t
35
of the rubber
composites containing MCC would not
negatively affect their vulcanization
processes.
Rheological properties
of the rubber composites
The rheological properties of the rubber
composites were obtained with the
capillary rheometer at two apparent shear
velocities of 500 s
-1
and 1,000 s
-1
because
milling, extrusion and calendaring of
rubber composites are usually carried
out at 500 s
-1
and the injection molding
at 1,000 s
-1
. The apparent shear stress
of each batch at 1,000 s
-1
was higher than
that at 500 s
-1
, which is consistent with
the fact that a high force had to be applied
to the rubber composites to achieve a high
flow rate (Figure 3). The apparent shear
stress decreased from Batch 1 to Batch
Figure 5: The scorch time (T
s
-2) and cure time
(T
c
-90) of each batch at 160C. T
s
-2 (Q): the time
required for increasing the torque above its minimum
by 2 units. T
c
-90 (V): the time required for reaching
90% of the maximum torque
Figure 6: The tensile strength of unaged (Q) and aged
rubber composites (Q). Each data point is the mean
of three replicates, and the error bar represents one
standard deviation
Figure 7: The modulus at 100% (), 200% (l ), and
300% (// ) elongation of unaged rubber composites
and the modulus at 100% (Q), 200% (\\ ), and 300%
() elongation of aged rubber composites. Each data
point was the mean of three replicates, and the error
bar represents one standard deviation
28
4, and then maintained almost the same
from Batch 4 to Batch 5. These results
revealed that MCC reduced the force
required for achieving the same flow rate.
With the increase in the MCC
replacement from Batch 1 to Batch 4,
the apparent dynamic shear viscosity
decreased at both apparent shear
velocities (Figure 4). These results
indicated that the MCC facilitated the
process of the rubber composites and
reduced the energy consumption for the
process. The apparent dynamic shear
viscosity for Batch 4 was almost the same
as that for Batch 5, which the MCC effect
on the reduction of the energy reduction
flattened out when the MCC replacement
was 17.6% or higher (Figure 4).
Cure characteristics of
the rubber composites
The scorch time (T
s
-2) for all five batches
was about six minutes. This implied that
the addition of MCC in rubber composites
did not have significant influence on
the time of initiating curing reactions
(Figure 5). T
c
-90 is usually used as the
cure time, i.e. the time required for full
cure of the rubber composites. The cure
time decreased from Batch 1 to Batch 2,
remained the same from Batch 2 to
Batch 3, decreased again from Batch 3
to Batch 4, and then kept almost the same
from Batch 4 to Batch 5 (Figure 5). As
discussed previously, MCC might facilitate
the dispersion of silica. A good dispersion
of silica (i.e. low aggregation of silica)
means that more silane coupling agent-
coated silica surfaces are available for
vulcanization, thereby reducing the cure
time. It is still poorly understood that the
cure time did not linearly decrease along
with increasing the MCC content. Because
the T
c
-90 was lower than 14 minutes
for all batches, the cure time of making
tensile specimens for all the batches was
set to be 14 minutes.
Tensile properties of unaged
and heat-aged rubber
composites
The tensile strength significantly increased
from Batch 1 to Batch 2 (Figure 6). The
tensile strengths of rubber composites
from Batch 3, Batch 4, and Batch 5 were
comparable to that of control rubber
composites from Batch 1 (Figure 6). For
those heat-aged rubber composites, the
tensile strength gradually decreased from
Batch 1 to Batch 3 and then remained the
same from Batch 3 to Batch 5 (Figure 6).
There are two opposite effects that can
affect the tensile strengths. First, a good
dispersion of fillers can improve the
interactions between fillers and rubber
matrix, thus improving the tensile
strength.
4, 16
Second, MCC has a lower
Youngs modulus than silica.
17
MCC-
rubber composites are inherently not as
strong as silica-rubber composites, which
means that silica cannot be completely
replaced by MCC. Results from Figure 6
demonstrate that tensile strengths of the
rubber composites containing MCC were
stronger than or comparable to the rubber
composites without MCC (Batch 1) when
the MCC content was below 23.5%. It is
still poorly understood that the treatment
of the rubber composites at 100C for 70
hours slightly reduced the tensile strength
of the rubber composites with MCC.
Figure 7 shows the effects of MCC
replacement in rubber composites on
modulus at 100%, 200%, and 300%
elongations. The modulus at 100%
elongation of unaged rubber composites
from Batch 2, Batch 3, Batch 4, and Batch
5 were higher than that of unaged control
rubber composites from Batch 1. The
modulus at 100% elongation of unaged
rubber composites gradually increased
as the amount of MCC replacement
increased from Batch 2 to Batch 5. The
modulus at 200% elongation of unaged
rubber composites from Batch 2, Batch 3,
Batch 4, and Batch 5 was higher than that
of unaged control rubber composites from
Batch 1. The modulus at 200% elongation
of unaged rubber composites slightly
increased as the percentage of MCC
replacement was increased from 0% to
11.8% (i.e. from Batch 1 to Batch 3), and
then remained statistically the same from
11.8% to 23.5% of MCC replacement, i.e.
from Batch 3 to Batch 5 (Figure 7). The
modulus at 300% elongation of unaged
rubber composites from Batch 2, Batch 3,
Batch 4, and Batch 5 was higher than that
of unaged control rubber composites from
Batch 1. The modulus at 300% elongation
of unaged rubber composites slightly
increased as the percentage of MCC
replacement was increased from 0%
to 11.8%, i.e. from Batch 1 to Batch 3,
remained statistically the same from
11.8% to 17.6% of MCC replacement,
i.e. from Batch 3 to Batch 4, and then
decreased from 17.6% to 23.5% of MCC
replacement, i.e. from Batch 4 to Batch 5.
The modulus at 100%, 200%, and
300% elongation for all aged specimens
increased when compared with the
corresponding modulus at 100%, 200%
and 300% elongation for all unaged ones.
The modulus of aged specimens at
100% elongation with MCC was larger
than that without MCC. The modulus of
aged specimens at 200% elongation for
Batch 1 had no difference from those for
Batch 2 and Batch 4. The modulus of aged
specimens at 200% elongation for Batch 1
Figure 10. The tear strength of rubber composites (Q)
and hot rubber composites (Q). Each data point is the
mean of three replicates, and the error bar represents
one standard deviation
Figure 9. Hardness (type A) of unaged (Q) and aged
(V) rubber composites. The data point is the median
values of five measurements
Figure 8: The elongation at break of unaged (Q)
and aged rubber composites (\\ ). Each data point
is the mean of three replicates, and the error bar
represents one standard deviation
29
was larger than those for Batch 3 and
Batch 5. Moreover, the modulus at 300%
elongation of aged specimens from
Batch 2 was comparable to Batch 1.
However, the modulus at 300%
elongation of aged specimens from Batch
3, Batch 4, and Batch 5 were lower than
Batch 1. The following mechanisms may
explain why the modulus changed after
aging. After vulcanization, the crosslinks
in rubber composites were mostly
polysulfide bonds. Polysulfide bonds
were more flexible, i.e. less stiff than
monosulfide bonds. As heat aging
proceeded, some polysulfide bonds
were broken down to monosulfide
bonds, which resulted in the increase
in the modulus.
4
Figure 8 shows the effects of MCC
replacement in rubber composites on
elongation at break. The elongation at
break of unaged rubber composites from
Batch 2 was not significantly different
from that of unaged control rubber
composites from Batch 1. The elongation
at break of unaged rubber composites
from Batch 3, Batch 4, and Batch 5 were
slightly shorter than that of unaged
control rubber composites from Batch 1
(Figure 8). The elongation at break of
unaged rubber composites from Batch 3
was almost the same as that from Batch 4
and Batch 5. The elongation at break for
each aged specimen was shorter than the
elongation at break for each unaged one.
Polysulfide bonds are more stretchable
than monosulfide bonds. Because some
polysulfide bonds were transformed into
monosulfide bonds as the heat aging
proceeded, the elongation at break of
the heat-aged composites became shorter
than that of the unaged ones.
4
The hardness of aged rubber
composites was higher than that of
corresponding unaged composites from
the same batch (Figure 9). The hardness
of unaged rubber composites from Batch
1 to Batch 3 was almost the same, and
then increased from Batch 3 to Batch 5.
The hardness of aged rubber composites
from Batches 1-4 was about the same
and was higher than that from Batch 5.
Tear strengths of the rubber
composites and hot rubber
composites
The tear strength of rubber composites
from Batch 2, Batch 3, Batch 4, and
Batch 5 was lower than that from Batch
1, respectively (Figure 10). The tear
strengths of rubber composites were
about the same from Batch 2 and Batch
3, decreased from Batch 3 to Batch 4, and
remained the same from Batch 4 to Batch
5. Rubber composites without MCC filler
had a higher homogeneity than those
containing MCC, thus MCC-filled rubber
composites had low tear strength. The
tear strength of hot rubber composites
remained the same from Batch 1 to
Batch 3. The tear strength of hot rubber
composites decreased from Batch 3 to
Batch 4 and then remained the same
from Batch 4 to Batch 5 (Figure 10).
Heat build-up and heat
blowout time of the
rubber composites
When rubber composites underwent
a long-term dynamic distortion, the
heat built up inside the composites (i.e.
the temperature increased). The inside
temperature after 45 minutes dynamic
distortion and the time after the rubber
composites deformed to 8.2mm were
recorded and are shown in Figure 11.
The temperature significantly decreased
when the MCC content was increased
from Batch 1 to Batch 5 (Figure 11).
However, the blowout time slowly
increased from Batch 1 to Batch 3 and
then rapidly increased from Batch 3 to
Batch 5. The heat capacity of cellulose
(1.3 kJ*kg
-1
*K
-1
) is larger than that of
silica (0.7 kJ*kg
-1
*K
-1
).
18
MCC could
serve as heat sink and significantly
delayed the blowout of the rubber
composites, which were very desirable
features for tire application.
There was smoke coming out of
blown-out test specimens, which
suggested that MCC was degraded to
some extent. This is consistent with the
fact that MCC is less heat resistant than
silica and carbon black. The previous
study on MCC with thermogravity
analysis (TGA) revealed that there was
little weight loss when the temperature
was below 200C.
19
The temperature
in some pocket areas of the rubber
composites might exceed the degradation
temperature (200C) during the Firestone
heat blowout test, which resulted in
the smoke. The degradation of MCC
requires energy, thus dissipating heat.
A combination of the high heat capacity
and a partial degradation of MCC may
account for the low inside temperature
and long blowout time. How the partial
degradation may affect the actual usable
life of rubber tires warrants further
investigation.
Dynamic mechanical
properties of the rubber
composites
The tanb was obtained from each rubber
composite at a low temperature (23C)
and a high temperature (100C). For test
specimens from the same batch, the tanb
at the low temperature was higher than
that at the high temperature (Figure 12).
At the low temperature, the tanb values
of Batch 2 and Batch 3 were statistically
the same as that of Batch 1. At the low
temperature, the tanb decreased from
Batch 3 to Batch 4 and then remained
the same from Batch 4 to Batch 5. At the
high temperature, the tanb decreased from
Batch 1 to Batch 2, remained the same
from Batch 2 to Batch 3 and then rapidly
decreased from Batch 3 to Batch 5 (Figure
12). A high tanb of rubber composite
means low friction between rubber tires
and road, i.e. a high rolling resistance
and low gas mileage. The tanb from the
low temperature has implications on the
rubber tire application in the rainy season,
when the temperature is low and the road
is wet. In the rainy season the high rolling
resistance between tires and the road is
desirable.
Figure 12: Viscoelastic property (tanb) of each
batch at 23C (Q) and 100C (V). Each data point
is the mean of three replicates, and the error bar
represents one standard deviation
Figure 11: Inside temperature of rubber composites
from the heat buildup test (Q) and the blowout time
of rubber composites from heat blowout test (V)
30
Therefore the higher the tanb obtained
from the low temperature, the better.
Rubber composites with up to 11.8% of
MCC replacement had the tanb, i.e. the
traction, comparable to control rubber
composites at low temperature. Further
increase in the MCC content in rubber
composites decreased the tanb, i.e. the
wet traction at low temperature. The
tanb from the high temperature has
implications on the rubber tire application
in summer: when the temperature is
high, the road is less slippery than in
the rainy season, and the fuel efficiency
of automobiles becomes an important
consideration. In summer the low tanb
of rubber tires, i.e. the low rolling
resistance between rubber tires and
road, is preferred for obtaining a high
fuel efficiency and good mileage for
automobiles. The tanb decreased from
Batch 1 to Batch 2, flattened out from
Batch 2 to Batch 3, and then rapidly
decreased from Batch 3 to Batch 5, which
implies that the partial replacement
of silica by MCC in rubber composites
would decrease the rolling resistance and
increase the fuel efficiency of automobiles
if the rubber tires are made with the
rubber composites containing MCC.
Summary and conclusions
The partial replacement of silica with
MCC significantly reduced the energy
required for thorough mixing of rubber,
fillers, and other additives. MCC
significantly reduced the initial viscosity
and the Mooney viscosity of unvulcanized
rubber composites, thus facilitating the
formation of rubber composites with
different shapes prior to vulcanization.
Moreover, the addition of MCC reduced
the difference in viscosities between
unaged and aged rubber composites,
thus facilitating the handling and
processing of the rubber composites.
The rubber composites with MCC
replacement had a higher pre-
vulcanization rate than those without
MCC. The low initial viscosity and low
Mooney viscosity of rubber composites
containing MCC would offset the negative
impacts of a higher pre-vulcanization rate
on the process. MCC decreased the shear
stress and shear viscosities, which further
demonstrated that MCC facilitated the
processes such as milling, calendaring,
extrusion, and injection molding of
rubber composites. The tensile strengths
and the modulus at 100%, 200%, 300%
elongation of rubber composites
containing up to 17.6% of MCC were
higher than those without MCC.
MCC increased the heat resistance
of rubber composites. The partial
replacement of silica with MCC slightly
decreased the tear strength of the rubber
composites and hot rubber composites.
The partial replacement of silica with
MCC did not decrease the tanb at the
MCC replacement of up to 11.8% at
low temperature such as in the rainy
season, and decreased the tanb at high
temperature such as in summer. The
automobile tires made from rubber
composites containing up to 11.8%
MCC would have the same traction on
the road in the winter as those without
MCC, and would give the automobiles
a higher fuel efficiency in summer than
those without MCC. tire
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this research was
provided by Schill+Seilacher Struktol
AG, Hamburg, Germany and Struktol
Company of America, Stow, Ohio.
The authors greatly appreciated the
experimental support from P. Danilowicz,
Z. Brdarski, B. Eikelberry, and K. Tracy
at Struktol Company of America.
References
1) Bowyer, J. L., Shmulsky, R., Haygreen, J. G.
Composition and Structure of Wood Cells.
In: Bowyer, J. L., Shmulsky, R., Haygreen, J. G.,
editors. Forest Products and Wood Science:
An Introduction. 4th edn. Ames, Iowa: Iowa
State Press (2003); p. 48-56
2) Ismail, H., Rosnah, N., Rozman, H. D. Curing
characteristics and mechanical properties of short
oil palm fiber reinforced rubber composites.
Polymer (1997); 38(16):4059-4064
3) Joseph, S., Joseph, K., Thomas S. Green composites
from natural rubber and oil palm fiber: physical
and mechanical properties. Int J Polym Mater
(2006); 55(11):925-945
4) Haghighat, M., Zadhoush, A., Khorasani, S. N.
Physicomechanical properties of alpha-cellulose-
filled styrene-butadiene rubber composites. J Appl
Polym Sci (2005); 96(6):2203-2211
5) Derringer, G. C. Short fiber-elastomer composites.
J Elastoplast 1971; 3(Oct.):230-248
6) Nunes, R. C. R., Visconte, L. L. Y. Natural fibers/
elastomeric composites. Nat Polym Agrofibers
Based Compos (2000); 135-157
7) Toschkov, T. S., Gospodinov, N. R., Vidimski, E. P.,
inventors; DSO Pharmachim, assignee. Method
of producing microcrystalline cellulose. US patent
3954727 (1976); 19760504
8) Vigo, T. L., Kinzig, B. J. Composite Applications:
The Role of Matrix, Fiber, And Interface.
New York: VCH (1992)
9) Laka, M., Chernyavskaya, S., Maskavs, M.
Cellulose-Containing Fillers for Polymer
Composites. Mech Compos Mater (2003);
39(2):183-188
10) Reinsch, V. E., Kelley, S. S. Crystallization of
poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) in
wood fiber-reinforced composites. J Appl Polym Sci
(1997); 64(9):1785-1796
11) Kubat, J., Klason, T. C. F., inventors; (Swed),
assignee. Composites from cellulose or
lignocellulosic materials and plastics. Application:
WO (1983); 19821210
12) Sun, C. True density of microcrystalline cellulose.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (2005);
94(10): 2132-2134
13) Perriot, A., Vandembroucq, D., Barthel, E.,
Martinez, V., Grosvalet, L., Martinet, C., et al.
Raman Microspectroscopic Characterization
of Amorphous Silica Plastic Behavior. Journal
of the American Ceramic Society (2006);
89(2):596-601
14) Gillen, K. T., Celina, M., Clough, R. L. Density
measurements as a condition monitoring approach
for following the aging of nuclear power plant
cable materials. Radiation Physics and Chemistry
(1999); 56(4):429-447
15) Wagner, M. P. Reinforcing silicas and silicates.
Rubber Chem Technol (1976); 49(3):703-774
16) Ishiaku, U. S., Chong, C. S., Ismail, H. Cure
characteristics and vulcanizate properties of
a natural rubber compound extended with
convoluted rubber powder. Polym Test (2000);
19(5):507-521
17) Eichhorn, S. J., Young, R. J. The Youngs modulus
of a microcrystalline cellulose. Cellulose (2001);
8(3):197-207
18) Ball, R., McIntosh, A. C., Brindley, J. The role
of char-forming processes in the thermal
decomposition of cellulose. Phys Chem Chem Phys
(1999); 1(21):5035-5043
19) Ardizzone, S., Dioguardi, F. S., Mussini, T.,
Mussini, P. R., Rondinini, S., Vercelli, B., et al.
Microcrystalline cellulose powders: structure,
surface features and water sorption capability.
Cellulose (1999); 6(1):57-69
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T
he tire/wheel assembly (referred
to here as assembly) is a critical
component in providing good
ride, a requirement for all road
vehicles, particularly automobiles and
light trucks. The assembly effect is
usually thought of in two ways. The first
is in terms of transmission of vibration
produced by the interaction of the tire
with road surface irregularities i.e.
harshness. The second is in terms of
tire structural irregularity generated,
and energy generated and transmitted
during operation on a smooth road i.e.
uniformity. Both types of energy share the
dynamic properties of the tire structure,
although they differ in source.
An assembly rolling on an absolutely
smooth surface inputs rotationally keyed
cyclical forces and moments to the spindle
to which it is attached. There are three
forces and three moments to consider
(Figure 1).
1
In a practical sense the
variation of two forces (radial and fore-
aft) and one moment (aligning moment)
are responsible for most of the ride
disturbances attributable to balance
or non-uniformity. Each of the non-
uniformity inputs is a complex time-
varying waveform keyed to the angular
position of the assembly.
It is common engineering practice
to use Fourier Analysis to decompose
uniformity waveforms into a series of pure
sine waves, either sine or cosine, whose
frequency depends on the frequency of
rotation of the assembly. Figure 2
2
is an
example of a uniformity waveform and its
decomposition into a series of sine waves.
The decomposition simplifies analysis.
The basic sine wave, first harmonic,
has a frequency equivalent to the
frequency of rotation of the assembly.
For example, if the assembly were
rotating 10 times per second, the
frequency of the first harmonic would
be 10Hz (cycles per second) or 20/
radians per second. The second harmonic
would have a frequency twice that of the
first harmonic, 40/ radians per second.
The third would have a frequency three
times that of the first harmonic, 60/
radians per second, and so on.
Each waveform varies with speed
due to variation of the excitation and
because tires, wheels, and assemblies,
like all physical objects, have
characteristics called natural frequencies.
Physical objects like to vibrate at these
frequencies. Thus, if a harmonic reaches
the natural frequency of a mode, the
harmonic will grow very large (Figure 3).
3
As a harmonic passes through the
frequency range, the vehicle speeds up
and slows down, and the system response
is delayed with respect to the harmonic
excitation as well as varying in amplitude.
This delay is called phase and is
illustrated in Figure 4, where we see a
shift between the start of excitation and
the systems response. Phase is usually
expressed as an angle, as in:
Equation 1
Tuning forks are a good modal example.
A tapped tuning fork emits a single note
associated with its principle mode of
vibration.
Complex objects such as a tire,
a wheel, an assembly, a car, and humans
This review of force uniformity mainly focuses on disturbances at the wheel rotation
rate, and also covers balance, which affects uniformity in well-balanced assemblies
by Marion Pottinger, MEngineering, USA
Uniformity: a crucial attribute
of tire/wheel assemblies
Figure 2: The waveform for each component is complex Figure 1: The uniformity axis system, specified in SAE J2047, is a 180 rotation of the ISO wheel axis system
Vector
Summation
1-2-3-4-5-6
Harmonics
1st
Harmonic
2nd
Harmonic
3rd
Harmonic
4th
Harmonic
5th
Harmonic
6th
Harmonic
Road plane
Contact center
Wheel plane
Wheel center
Reference
radius
R
RF
RM
Projection of reference
point on wheel plane
LM
LF
L
FM
FF
F
F
o
rw
a
rd
32
have multiple natural frequencies, each
of which has an associated mode shape.
Figure 5 shows the most important
modes for a radial tire with respect
to ride vibration.
As noted in the equation above, the
actual output from a rotating assembly
into the vehicle spindle is composed of
a first harmonic and higher harmonics.
This is true for all the forces and moments
shown in Figure 1, but most critically
for the fore-aft and radial forces, plus,
to a lesser extent, the aligning moment.
5
Figure 6 illustrates which harmonics are
associated with which types of smooth
road ride problems.
All service adjustments to assemblies
such as balancing and match mounting
are based on adjusting first harmonic
behavior. In a practical sense, the higher
harmonic excitations are the province
of the tire manufacturer and perhaps
the wheel manufacturer, although this
remains to be proved. The vehicle
structural response to all harmonics of
each of the forces and moments is subject
to modification by the vehicle
manufacturer.
It is common to begin a discussion
of smooth road-ride disturbances by
providing a laundry list of potential
sources of uniformity problems within
the tires and/or the wheels. In a practical
sense, from the standpoint of a company
that wants to correct problems after the
tires and wheel are manufactured, only
a limited number of sources are relevant.
A number of the sources that have been
listed classically are no longer relevant
because well-made tires manufactured
with state-of-the-art equipment by top
manufacturers either do not have these
problems, or they have been reduced
to a low level. Thus, problems such
as improperly made splices, lumpy
extrusions, poor belt-width control,
and snaked belts will be largely ignored
in what follows. Things that remain are
tire runout, rim runouts, rim-width
variations, tire-bead area placement
variations, and other bead-seating errors.
These will be viewed in the context
of radial tires.
Figure 7 is a wheel-plane schematic
view of a radial tire mounted on a perfect
wheel. The radial tire is basically a stiff
belt and tread area hoop supported on
a set of sidewall cords tensioned by
inflation. It can be described as an odd
relative of a bicycle wheel. The static
balance heavy point of the tire alone
is at the high point of the tires crown
radial runout.
5
Regardless of which radius is loaded
against the road, the mounted radial
tires radial stiffness is about the same.
However, for a constant loaded radius the
force exerted radially against the spindle
varies over a revolution because the
assemblys inherent out-of-roundness
causes the deflection of the carcass spring
to vary. The following equation expresses
Figure 3: Waveforms are very speed dependent
Figure 5: The crucial radial tire modes for ride vibration
Figure 4: Example of phase delay, showing a shift between the start of excitation and the systems response
Figure 6: Smooth road ride noise and vibration disturbances (reprinted with permission from STP 929 1986 ASTM
3
)
- Front suspension vertical
acceleration on 30 wheel
- BFG Hisum
X - Lab machine
M.G Pottinger, T.R. Wik
and K.D. Marshall,
BF Goodrich 1972
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
R
a
d
i
a
l
f
o
r
c
e
(
p
e
a
k
t
o
-
p
e
a
k
-
L
B
)
U
n
s
p
r
u
n
g
m
a
s
s
v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
g
s
)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Speed (mph)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
Angle ()
0 90 180 270 360
Phase
lag
Output or
response
Radians
Input
12
312 2
Vertical Longitudinal
Rigid Body 18Hz Torsional 42Hz
Flexural 80Hz Flexural 88Hz
Frequency (Hz)
10
l
100
l
1,000
l
Not part of this discussion
Higher harmonics
Tire induced
Tire/pavement interaction noise
Roughness Shake
First harmonic
Rolling
boom
Spring/mass damper Shell modes
Local modes, Airpumping
organ pipes
Rigid body Structural modes
Acoustic transmissability
(Rigid) suspension elements
(local)
Chassis
beaming
Vehicle
response
Tire
response
Tire
induced
Road
induced
A
B
C
D
33
the radial force variation developed at the
footprint.
Equation 2
Figure 8 illustrates the well-known
correlation between the first harmonic
radial force variation, RFH1, and the
first harmonic geometrical runout, H1.
The slope of the linear fit represents
the tangent stiffness of the tire-wheel
assembly at the test load and inflation
pressure. The obvious linearity of the data
set is good experimental evidence that
low-speed radial force non-uniformities
are manifested as geometrical runout
of tires, at least for the first harmonic.
6
With the tire operating either against
a test surface or moving over a road
at a constant speed, the kinematics of
rotation force the tread band to undergo
angular acceleration and deceleration due
to the presence of the fixed loaded radius.
There is an associated cyclically varying
fore-aft force that acts at the spindle
because the tires rolling radius is variable.
This equation expresses the variable
rolling radius.
Equation 3
Substituting the rolling radius expressed
into this equation
Equation 4
and differentiating with respect
to time, Walker and Reeves
6
derived
an approximate expression for the
angular acceleration of the belt/tread,
which is:
Equation 5
Substitution of the angular acceleration
into the equation describing motion about
the spindle derived by drawing a free-
body diagram of assembly leads finally
to Equation 6, which explains the basic
behavior of fore-aft or longitudinal force
as a function of variation in the tires
rolling radius.
Equation 6
Figure 9 shows the variation of radial
force, fore-aft force, and lateral force
with speed for tires tested by Walker and
Reeves.
5
Walker and Reeves were well aware of
the interaction with the first longitudinal
(torsional) mode shown as having a
natural frequency of 42Hz for the tire
design shown in Figure 5. They discussed
this interaction primarily in terms of
phase. Richards
7
extended the work of
Walker and Reeves to explicitly include
the resonant effect using experiments
on a larger tire with a first longitudinal
(torsional) natural frequency of about
26Hz. Figures in Reeves work based on
hundreds of tests demonstrate that the
modal interaction conclusions are correct.
In a practical sense, Figures 10 and 11
approximate first harmonic force
examples for a P225/60R16 tire, and
demonstrate the effects. Note that the
reason the radial force seems relatively
speed independent in Figure 9 or 11 is
that its excitation source is not speed
dependent, and that the associated
frequencies dont get high enough to get
near the first vertical flexural mode, which
has a natural frequency of 80Hz in the
example in Figure 5 and is about 60Hz
for the P225/60R16 tire used to plot
Figure 11. Looking back at Figure 3, there
is an example of a higher harmonic of
Figure 7: Wheel plane schematic of mounted radial Figure 8: Correlation of first harmonics (runout & force) Figure 9: First harmonic variation vs speed for 40 tires
Figure 10: First harmonic force peak-to-peak fore-aft force for P225/60R16 tire assembly with 0.5mm amplitude
Spindle
Rim
Tire
Heavy point
R
a
d
i
a
l
r
u
n
o
u
t
(
m
m
)
Radial force variation, H1 (daN)
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-4 -2 0 2 4
Lateral
Longitudinal
Peak/Peak
Force (LB)
Radial
100
10
1
100
10
1
100
10
1
10 50 100
Speed (km/h)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
x Neglecting 1st mode
resonance
With 1st mode
resonance
P
e
a
k
-
t
o
-
p
e
a
k
f
o
r
e
-
a
f
t
f
o
r
c
e
(
N
)
100
80
60
40
20
0
34
Speed (mph)
radial force that did pass through the
first vertical flexural mode. It had a sharp
response to frequency that would seem to
be a sharp-speed response to a driver or
on a uniformity machine where data was
reported as a function of speed.
The fore-aft force first harmonic,
FFH1, lags RFH1 by 90 (//2 radians)
at low frequencies. This is expected from
the fact that Equation 2 is a sine series
and Equation 6 is a cosine series.
As the frequency of the first harmonics
rises, the interaction with the first
longitudinal mode causes FFH1 to lag
further and further behind RFH1. Walker
and Reeves
5
observed this and Richards
7
verified this.
At this point it is worth making four
observations about radial force and fore-
aft force. Although these observations are
generalized, they apply very well to first
harmonic disturbances, which are of
interest in post-manufacturing tire
correction as done prior to mounting the
tires on vehicles.
First, the runout of the mounted tires
crown with respect to the spindle is the
major variable driving fore-aft and radial
force first harmonic variations.
Second, radial force variations arise
due to flexing of the tires carcass spring
due to crown runout. RF non-uniformity
does not show a major change with speed,
but does interact strongly with the first
vertical flexural mode at frequencies
above about one-half of the modes natural
frequencies. This interaction is not
relevant for RFH1 or RFH2, but can
become important for higher harmonics at
speeds driven in the USA. The interaction
with the first and second harmonics
would be considerable at autobahn
speeds.
Third, fore-aft force variations show an
increase with the square of driving speed.
This is a major increase with speed. The
FF variations arise from angular
acceleration of the assembly about the
spindle, due to the variation in rolling
radius arising from the runout of the
mounted tires crown with respect to the
spindle. Due to the lower frequency of
the first longitudinal (torsional) mode, all
harmonics including FFH1 are affected
by this mode at speeds driven in the USA.
For FFH1 the interaction is not really
relevant at speeds below 100km/h.
Next, fore-aft force variation lags the
radial force variation by 90 (//2 radians)
until the angular frequency approaches
one-half of the torsional natural frequency,
at which point the lag begins to increase
as frequency increases.
Additionally, the literature makes
an important point about the location
of the heavy point and apparent location
of the static unbalance.
Finally, the location of the heavy point
of the tire alone is at the high point of the
tires crown radial runout.
Correction of first harmonic non-
uniformity forces in the post-
manufacturing environment has taken
two forms: match-mounting of the tire
and wheel
5,6,9,11
and post-cure, uniformity,
grinding of tires.
12
Weights have been
considered as means of first harmonic
non-uniformity force correction in a
perturbation of balancing technology, but
they do not work for this purpose,
5
as
discussed below.
Observing that out of roundness is
the principle source of RFH1, Walker
and Reeves
5
explored the effect of match-
mounting, which they called selective
fitting on high-speed uniformity for
1970s vintage radial tires. In match-
mounting the wheel, first harmonic radial
runout low spot is matched with the tire
first harmonic radial force high spot,
Figure 11: First harmonic force peak-to-peak radial force for P225/60R16 tire assembly with 0.5mm amplitude Figure 12: Match-mounted assembly (selective fitting)
Figure 13: Assembly RFH1 randomly assembled
improved and conventional wheels and tires
Figure 14: Assembly RFH1 for randomly assembled
and match-mounted improved wheels and tires
Figure 15: Radial force first harmonic of 115 tires
and wheels matched in accordance with Equation 7
x Neglecting 1st mode
resonance
With 1st mode
resonance
P
e
a
k
-
t
o
-
p
e
a
k
f
o
r
e
-
a
f
t
f
o
r
c
e
(
N
)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Speed (km/h)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Wheel radial runout 1st
harmonic low point
Tire radial force variation
1st harmonic high point
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
FRFV (LBS)
Conventional wheels
and unground tires
Improved wheels
and ground tires
8 12 16 20 24 28
100
80
60
40
20
0
FRFV (LBS)
8 12 16 20 24 28
100
80
60
40
20
0
Matched
Random
P
e
a
k
-
t
o
-
p
e
a
k
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
(
l
b
s
)
50
40
30
20
10
0
200
150
100
50
0
Assembly rad. force
1st harmonic
0 20 40 60 80 (N)
0 5 10 15 20
Peak-to-peak Predicted (lb)
35
as shown in Figure 12. The result, on
average, is a reduction in the overall first
harmonic runout of the assembly. Walker
and Reeves found that the technique
of selective fitting of tires to wheels to
reduce low-speed radial force variation
is, fortunately, fairly effective for limiting
high-speed longitudinal, fore-aft force
variations. Note that they observed that
things werent perfect, as represented
by the words fairly effective.
A short time before Walker and Reeves
published their work, Nedley and Gearig,
9
who had only low-speed uniformity
measurements and ride ratings for belted
bias tires as data, published a report on
the effect of improved component tires
and wheels on ride. In the process they
also covered match-mounting with
respect to low-speed RFH1 behavior. The
improved components were Tru-centric
wheels
10
well-piloted steel wheels
manufactured using a process invented
by Kelsey-Hayes, and uniformity ground
tires, a concept introduced by General
Tire.
12
The improved components were
reported to sharply reduce RFH1 for
assemblies, even when randomly
assembled (Figure 13). Match-mounting
of the improved components was even
better (Figure 14).
Nedley and Gearig believed that you
could take a set of RFH1 data for a group
of tires measured on true wheels, and
a set of H1 data from a group of wheels,
multiply it by the tire spring rate, and
then combine these data according
to Equation 7 to predict the RFH1A,
maximum amplitude data for the possible
combinations of wheels and tires.
Equation 7
Thus, it is possible to quickly get the
probable mounting results without
experimentation, and using full
assemblies. Many unfamiliar with the
literature still believe this to be a true
representation of match-mounting.
Walker and Reeves knew a bit later
that the simple Nedley and Gearig model
of match-mounting was not completely
correct. In the early 1990s, Schuring
11
showed explicitly that the simple
assumption for the match-mounting
was in error (Figure 15). Thus, the
conclusions by Nedley and Gearig
need to be viewed with caution.
Furthermore, Schuring showed that
the mounting uncertainty depended on
the quality of the wheels used, but he was
unable to provide an explanation for what
was being observed. However, he did
observe that the behavior of tires with
respect to RFH1 was much more
consistent on what he termed precision
wheels when mounted multiple times on
each wheel at different angular positions.
Rhyne, Gall, and Chang
6
modeled the
effect of rim precision on the location of
the beads in terms of the wheel width
variation and radius variation. The
inclusion of the wheel width variation
sharply improved the agreement between
the predicted match-mounting behavior
and the observed match-mounting
behavior (Figure 16), although the
results are still not perfect.
It is possible that had the effect of
thickness variations in the bead region
of the tire, due to factors such as splices,
been included, then most of the rest
of the deviation from the simple match-
mounting relationship (Equation 7)
Figure 16: Vector difference between the measured
and predicted wheel contributions to the RFH1A
Figure 17: Effect of uniformity grinding (reprinted
with permission from SAE 700089 1970
Figure 18: Ground tire image as of 1969. Just grinding
on the shoulder ribs is no longer enough for tires
Figure 19: The relationship between longitudinal (fore-aft) and radial force variations of static unbalance
Measured Rim RH1 (daN)
Radial and lateral model
+ radial only model
8 12 16 20 24 28
0 1 2 3 4
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
-
P
r
e
d
i
c
t
e
d
(
d
a
N
)
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
FRFV (LBS)
100
80
60
40
20
0 20 40 60 80
Ground
Unground
Radial
force
maximum
+ve Long
force
maximum
+ve
Maximum
Co-axial
circle
High spot
Tire
periphery
Tire out of balance
Fixed axle
Road wheel
1 2
3
4
Ground outer tread rows
It is possible to
quickly get the
probable mounting
results without
experimentation,
and using full
assemblies
36
would have been explained. Importantly,
Rhyne and his associates showed that the
response to wheel width variation is mean
rim width dependent for a particular
tire. Therefore, it is likely that every
different tire specification yields a different
response to wheel width variation.
From a users viewpoint, the ideal
wheel is one with constant bead radius
and rim flange to rim flange width as
a function of circumferential position.
With this, match-mounting would work
substantially well for RFH1 based on the
simple match-mounting relationship.
The situation with respect to match-
mounting can be summarized in three
observations.
Match-mounting using the classical
concept is a helpful procedure for
reducing RFH1A provided that: the
width between the wheel flanges is
essentially constant over the wheel
circumference; the wheel radial first
harmonic runout multiplied by tire
vertical spring rate and tire first
radial harmonic are such that matching
greatly reduces the assembly RH1;
successful match-mounting substantially
reduces FFH1A at highway speed;
and the best results would be obtained
if the tire first radial harmonic and
wheel radial first harmonic runout
multiplied by tire vertical spring rate
were identical so that assembly RH1
could be made equal to zero by match-
mounting.
It should not be forgotten that match-
mounting results will still be somewhat
imperfect even if all three observations
are scrupulously adhered to, due to
bead position lateral variation caused
by thickness variations within the
tire itself.
Earlier in this article, the process
of uniformity grinding was briefly
mentioned. This process, invented by
Hofelt,
12
involves selective alteration of
the tires tread surface profile so as to
reduce RFH1T. It was quite popular from
around 1970 because of its effectiveness
on tires of that era (Figure 17). But, its
popularity has waned as tires have
changed, so grinding on the shoulder
ribs, as in Figure 18, is no longer enough.
Indeed automotive OEMs often no longer
accept ground tires for reasons of poor
appearance and a tendency for the
grinding to trigger uneven wear. In any
case, other than some preliminary work
by Caulfield and Higgins,
13
uniformity
grinding has been a tire factory, not
a service, procedure.
Going back to Figure 7, if the assembly
is rotating, the static unbalance assumes
the positions indicated in Figure 19.
The magnitude of the static unbalance
force vector is given in the following
equation:
Equation 8
It is directed outward from the center of
the spindle along a line through the heavy
point; thus, its phase with respect to the
assembly never changes.
The RFH1A, exclusive of unbalance,
is a maximum at position 1 and
a minimum at position 3 (the solid
arrows). The FFH1A, exclusive of
unbalance, is a maximum at position 2
and a minimum at position 4 (the
dotted arrows). The unbalance force
tends to make RFH1A smaller and FFH1A
larger than they would be in its absence.
For the balanced assembly (Figure 20),
RFH1A is larger and FFH1A is smaller
than in the unbalanced state because
part of all of the static unbalance induced
force has been canceled.
Noting this effect leads to the thought
that maybe RFH1A and FFH1A can
be canceled by a unique use of balance
weights. Unfortunately, the phase for
the weight required for correction is
different for correcting fore-aft and
radial forces. In the case of FFH1A,
the phase of the uniformity component
changes while that of the weight-induced
balance component does not (Figure 21).
Furthermore, the magnitude for RFH1A
Figure 20: Unbalance and balancing force vectors Figure 21: Effect of balance weight on longitudinal (fore-aft) force variation (reprinted with Tire Society permission)
Balance
weight
Unbalance
force
Unbalance
Balancing
force
Phase lag
Locus of tire longitudinal vector
BALANCE WEIGHT EFFECT
ASSEMBLY REFERENCE
B
C
C
B
A
A
D
D
50 100
40
150
40
40
40
(LB)
|
100
100
100
It is very likely that
every different tire
specification yields
a different response
to wheel width
variation
Assembly reference
Balance weight effect
C
100
B
100
A
100
D
100
D
40
C
40
B
40
A
40
Unbalance
force
37
correction by use of a weight can only
be correct at one speed. This all leads
to an important observation first made
by Walker and Reeves: It is not possible
to balance tire and wheel uniformity
in a manner that satisfies radial and
longitudinal fore-aft, directions over
a wide speed range.
In terms of pure balance correction,
Ni
14
showed that, besides the wheels
own inherent imbalance and the effect
of RH1W on imbalance by moving
the wheel center of mass off the spindle
center, wheel lateral runout also
contributes to imbalance. By implication,
if a hub has a face that is not
perpendicular to the spindle it will
create imbalance that is not accounted
for in off-the-car balancing, because
a good true running wheel will be
forced to act in service as if it possesses
lateral runout.
Neill and Kondo
15
worked on balance
right at the time that Tru-centric wheels
appeared.
9,10
They did not have the new
properly piloted wheels and concluded
that on-the-car balancing was superior
to off-the-car balancing. This points out
the very major effect of having properly
piloted wheels and truly by implication
the value of properly centered hubs.
Recently, Ford discussed the possibility
of doing away with the static balance
specification on tires, and thereby
reducing the number of tires rejected
by their specifications.
16
The analytical
approach is rather unusual and also may
not be valid.
Of more practical interest, Hunter
Engineerings Scribner
17
pushed the
concept that if the dynamic imbalance
doesnt exceed certain ride test
determined levels, it is wasteful of
materials and time, and is perhaps
even counterproductive to do more
than static balance. This appears
to have validity.
There are three additional balance
observations worth making: wheels must
be well piloted for good balance results
to be obtained in service; wheel-mounted
lateral runout must be small to obtain
good balance with a minimum amount
of weight; and static imbalance is always
important, but dynamic imbalance needs
to reach a critical threshold before it is
a notable problem.
Based on the observations made in this
article, and the fact that service area ride
treatment of tire-wheel assemblies is
fundamentally confined to correcting
RFH1 and FFH1 whether from a
uniformity or balance source, there are
four basic conclusions that can be made.
Reduction of assembly first harmonic
radial runout is the most important thing
that can be done to simultaneously reduce
RFH1 and FFH1. Therefore, effective
match-mounting is important.
For match-mounting to work
effectively based on the standard
match-mounting relationship, the
wheel width between the rim flanges
must be essentially constant within
a few one-hundredths of a millimeter.
For good ride performance,
particularly in balance terms, wheels
must be well piloted and the wheel
plus hub must suppress lateral runout.
Finally, static imbalance is
predominantly important and dynamic
imbalance can be ignored unless it
is substantial.
In reality, neither tires nor wheels are
bolted to hubs assemblies are bolted
to hubs. So the important thing is good
assembly uniformity. Match-mounting
offers help, but often the combination
of wheel runout and tire uniformity in
the components of an assembly cannot
produce a nearly ideal situation in which
the assemblys first harmonic runout
defined in force terms is effectively zero.
But, there may be a way to resolve this
problem, first suggested by T. R. Wik
in the early 1970s when he was involved
in the tire industry. Suppose the wheel-
center hole was larger than needed to
pilot the assembly, and an element (ring)
was superimposed between the hub and
wheel, which was off-center just the right
amount to make the radial runout of the
assembly based on first harmonic radial
force zero.
Figure 22 is a sketch of such an
arrangement. Effectively perfect match-
mounting could be induced. As an
example, tap-in metal rings could be used
to generate the effect or a quick set ring
formed by an injectable polymer could
be used. Obviously, there are many detail
design considerations, from wheel bolting
and insuring that the tire cannot move
circumferentially with respect to the rim
during operation to force measuring
equipment to be considered. This idea
and a good balance job could make first
harmonic uniformity ride disturbances
a thing of the past. tire
2009 Tire Society, Inc. Used with permission
REFERENCES:
1) Warrendale, P.A. Tire Performance Terminology,
J2047, SAE, 1998.
2) Marshall, K. D. Tire Noise and Vibration,
Chapter 9, The Pneumatic Tire (edited by J. D.
Walter and A. N. Gent), National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration, Washington DC,
2005.
3) Pottinger, M. G. Marshall, K. D. Lawther, J. M.
and Thrasher, D. B. A Review of Tire/Pavement
Interaction Induced Noise and Vibration, The
Tire Pavement Interface, ASTM STP 929,
M.G. Pottinger and T.J. Yager, Eds., American
Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
1986, pp. 183-287.
4) Marshall, K. D. Wik, T. R. Miller, R. F. and
Iden, R. W. Tire Roughness Which Tire
Nonuniformities are Responsible, SAE 740066,
Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale,
PA, 1974.
5) Walker, J. C. and Reeves, N. H. Uniformity of
Tires at Vehicle Operating Speeds, Tire Science
and Technology, TSTCA, Vol. 2, No. 3, Aug.
Figure 22: Example assembly incorporating the
ability to deliberately offset the wheel center
Center of
rotation
Ring
Offset
wheel
center
Wheel
disc
Hub
The phased wheel offset
from the center of rotation
produces the ideal match
mounting required
Reduction of assembly first harmonic
radial runout is the most important thing
that can reduce RFH1 and FFH1
38
1974, pp. 163-178.
6) Rhyne, T. B. Gall, R. and Chang L. Y. Influence
of Rim Run-Out on the Non-uniformity of Tire-
Wheel Assemblies, Tire Science and Technology,
TSTCA, Vol. 22, No. 2, April-June. 1994,
pp. 99-120.
7) Richards, T. L. The Relationship Between Angular
Velocity Variations and Fore and Aft Non-
uniformity Forces in Tires, SAE900761, Society
of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale,
PA, 1990.
8) Koutny, F. Analytical Comments on Radial Tire
Nonuniformity, Tire Science and Technology,
TSTCA, Vol. 24, No. 2, April-June, 1996,
pp. 132-152.
9) Nedley, A. L. & Gearig, D. M. Radical
Improvements in Tire and Wheel Manufacturing
Their Effects Upon Radial Force Variation of the
Assembly, SAE 700089, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1970.
10) MacIntyre, D. D. Advances in Wheel Uniformity,
SAE 710087, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1971.
11) Schuring, D. J. Uniformity of Tire-Wheel
Assemblies, Tire Science and Technology,
TSTCA, Vol. 19, No. 4, October December,
1991, pp. 213-236.
12) Hofelt, C. Jr. Uniformity Control of Cured Tires,
SAE 690076, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1969.
13) Caulfield, R. J. and Higgins, R. J. On-Car Tire
Grinder for Improved Tire Smoothness,
SAE720465, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1972.
14) Ni, E. J. A Mathematical Model for Tire/Wheel
Assembly Balance, Tire Science and Technology,
TSTCA, Vol. 21, No. 4, October December,
1993, pp. 220-231.
15) Neill, A. H. Jr. and Kondo, A. Correcting
Vehicle Shake, Tire Science and Technology,
TSTCA, Vol. 2, No. 3, August, 1974,
pp. 179-194.
16) Tananko, D. Krivtsov, V. and Rohweder, D.
Do We Really Need a Spec on Tire Static Balance?
SAE 2003-01-0151, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2003.
17) Scribner, D. New Dynamic Balancing
Method Based Upon Absolute Force
Reduction Algorithms, ITEC, Akron,
Ohio, September 2006.
NOMENCLATURE:
Symbol definition
An Amplitude of the nth member
of a Fourier series
F Fore-aft axis
F(t) A force varying with time
FF Fore-aft, longitudinal, force
FFH1 Fore-aft 1st harmonic force
FM Moment about the fore-aft axis,
overturning moment
H Wheel center height, loaded radius
H1 Wheel radial runout 1st harmonic
kR Global tire stiffness in the radial direction
L Lateral Axis, coincident with spindle center
line herein
LF Lateral, force
LM Moment about the lateral axis, torque
mUNBAL Static unbalance expressed as an equivalent
mass
n The index of the nth member of a Fourier
series
rW Radius to the effective imbalance mass
R Radial axis
R Mean rolling radius
RR Rolling radius
Rn Amplitude of the nth component or harmonic
of radial runout
RF Radial, force
RFH1 Radial Force 1st harmonic force
RFH1A Assembly radial force 1st harmonic force
RFH1T Tire radial force 1st harmonic force
RFH1W Wheel radial force 1st harmonic force
RFH2 Radial force 2nd harmonic force
RM Moment about the radial axis, aligning
moment
t Time
T Tire rotational period
UNBALFUnbalance force
V Forward velocity
q Reference angle
q
n
Phase angle of the nth member or harmonic
in a Fourier series
t assembly angular velocity
u
t assembly angular acceleration
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39
40
F
or modern development of new or
improved cars or car components,
the dynamic simulation of the
behavior of the system is an
essential advantage that saves time and
money. Because the main force transfer
between the car and the environment
occurs via the tires, the description/
modeling of the tire characteristics is of
great importance for a useful and valid
simulation of the vehicle dynamics.
On the one hand the modeling of tire
behavior should not be too complicated
and should be properly geared toward
the goal of the investigation. On the
other hand it should satisfactorily map the
measurements of the tire characteristics.
To obtain reliable simulation results as
a substitute for tests and experiments,
it is especially important that the tire
behavior is correct.
In 2002 a group of experts started the
Tire Model Performance Test (TMPT),
1
for commercially-available passenger
car tire models offering the possibility
of getting objective information about
their efficiency. Consequently, the
TMPT also includes a comparison
of different models.
Figure 1 indicates that the group of
experts, establishing the test, first had
to define the test specifications attuned
for tire handling properties, and for the
high-frequency behavior of the tires.
Special measurements were the basis for
the parameterization of the tire models.
The tire characteristics of the chosen
tire models were investigated by MBS-
software suppliers using a special test
rig (Figure 3). Results management and
the general organization was done by
the university, independently of all other
participating groups. By creating this
structure the intention was to guarantee
an objective evaluation.
The majority of specifications for
the test maneuvers to be performed
applying the virtual test rig are summed
It is especially important that tire behavior is correct to obtain reliable
simulation results as substitutes for tests and experiments
by P. Lugner & M. Plchl, University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
Comparison of tire models
and their application for vehicle system dynamics
Figure 2: Specifications for the tire performance test
Figure 1: Structure of the Tire Model Performance Test (TMPT)
Establishing Group: Experts of tire manufacturers,
Tire model providers
MBS software providers,
Industry (application)
University
Measurements
Continental, Michelin
Tire models
TMPT specification
and definition
MBS simulation (test rig)
ADAMS, DADS, SIMPACK
Evaluation and comparison of results Inst. of
Mechanics and Mechatranics Vienna University
of Technology
Figure 3: Virtual test rig and possible input quantities for the simulation of the performance of the tire model.
Revolute joint between
wheel guidance and sledge:
steering angle
Wheel guidance device
Wheel carrier and
coordinate system
Inclination of wheel to
wheel carrier: camber
Revolute joint between
wheel and wheel carrier:
angular velocity of wheel
Vertical load to press wheel
on ground surface
Translational joint between
wheel guidance and wheel
carrier: vertical motion
Translational joint for
longitudial motion of
the sledge: velocity
Handling.
Parking: Steering at standstill
Cornering: steering angle (t)=kt, k=2/s (steering angle is equal to the side-slip
angle _ of the wheel for the test rig used
Turn around steering at v=10m/s until _=180 or failure of simulation
Changing driving conditions (with _=0.75_
max
): load step changes, +-step changes
Longitudinal behavior (_=0): change of inflation pressure, +-step change with braking
Combined steady-state characteristics F
y
(F
x
,_), M2(Fx,_), v=80km/h
High-frequency range.
Dynamic brake cycle: braking torque applied corresponding to an ABS-system
Vertical excitation sweep: amplitude 1cm up to 40Hz, different running speeds,
a=0 and a=0.75amax
Steering sweep: amplitude 2 to 40Hz: mean values _
m
=0 and _
m
=0.75_
max
Running over a cleat: different speeds, _=0 and a=0.75amax, 90 and oblique cleat
Sequence of potholes, step up and step down, with and without brake torque
41
up in Figure 2. The difference between
handling and higher frequency range
(hfr) should make an evaluation of
the tire models clearer, having in mind
the different complexity of the tire
models.
The data for a great variety of working
conditions to parameterize the tire
models were measured by Michelin and
Continental using a special test tire. Also
its cross section and material properties
were determined.
For the dynamic properties the first
eigenmodes for radial and transversal
vibrations were investigated. With
a cleat fixed on a drum the transient
tire characteristic were experimentally
measured for different cleat heights
and velocities. As a consequence an
extensive amount of information was
available for the tire model providers.
All seven tire models,
1
that participated
in the TMPT, were either already
commercially available as software
package or extensively applied for
simulations in industry.
The F tire structural tire model
2,3
uses the belt to rim suspension and
a description of belt deformations to
be able to take into account hfr problems
and local road surface contours. Local
contact elements describe the sticking
and slipping phenomena, (Figure 4).
A further development of the well-
known Magic Formula tire model,
4
the Swift model, scans the road surface
using cams that represent the tire
contour (Figure 5). The belt-to-rim
suspension, including the local contact
element, extends the range of application
into the hfr.
The CD tire model also utilizes the
substructuring of the belt to be able
to operate in the hfr (Figure 6
5,6
). The
effective tire-road surface contact is
also described by local contact elements
including elasticity and damping.
The TMeasy tire model is mainly
aimed at handling problems and
provides a mathematical approximation
of measurements of the longitudinal
and lateral tire characteristics.
By a reasonable combination of this
information any combined loading
of the tire can be described (Figure 7
7
).
A basic description for the transient
behavior is added.
Based on the Magic Formula,
4
the
PAC 2002 handling model calculates
for pure and combined longitudinal and
lateral slip valuing the corresponding
tire characteristics based on the
approximation of measurements.
Relaxation lengths in both directions
are employed to describe the transient
behavior.
8
The semi-physical Uni tire model takes
into account carcass flexibility in lateral
and longitudinal directions, carcass twist
stiffness, combined slip characteristics
and a non-isotropic friction concept.
9,10
Although thereby non-steady-state tire
behavior could be taken into account,
the tire model is mainly aimed at studying
handling maneuvers.
The Hankook-semi-physical-tire-model
concept emphasizes handling behavior. It
includes a transient behavior description
based on visco-elastic properties.
11,12
Belt flexibility stiffnesses
Radical force elements
between each belt node
and rim
Contact element tangential
displacement model
Figure 4: Main structural features of the F tire structural model which describes sticking and slipping phenomena
wheel plane
wheel rim
belt
residual
springs
contact
oblique step
cams
effective road plane
s
a
`
e
`
_
_
C
W
_
sc
_
V
sc
c
_
V
M
z
F
y
Figure 5: Structure of the Swift tire model, which scans the road surface using cams that represent the tire contour
Figure 6: Structures of tire model CD tire 30 (with one belt ring) and model CD tire 40 (with four belt rings) with
flexible connected structural elements. The CD tire model uses substructuring of the belt to operate in the hfr
EUROPES LEADING
INTERNATIONAL TIRE DESIGN
AND TIRE MANUFACTURING
EXHIBITION AND CONFERENCE
www.tiretechnology-expo.com
9, 10 & 11 February 2010, Kln (Cologne) Messe, Germany
Design I Technology I Materials I Manufacturing
www.tiretechnology-expo.com
8
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0
k
h
0
w
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43
Camber, aligning torque and combined
slip values are represented in considering
the tire-patch structure.
The aim of the simulations was,
on one hand, to show the range of
application of the tire models by
capability tests, and on the other,
to check the quality of the results
by validation tests in comparison with
measurements, including measurements
not available for the tire model provider.
The following results are marked with
symbols: higher frequency models (hfr):
A, B, E; handling models: C, D, F, G; MBS
software: I, II, III; producing available
combinations: IA, IB, IC; IIE; IIIA, IIIB,
IIID, IIIF, IIIG.
Only a small selection of results are
shown and for more information and for
related names of tire models and software
packages see Lugner & Plchl, 2009.
One of the capability tests is turning
the tire at standstill, typically when
parking (Figure 9). Not all tire models
were able to simulate this manoeuvre.
The obvious differences between the
models and softwares are relatively small.
Most essential for vehicle handling is
the tire behavior during cornering, the
lateral force and the aligning moment
induced by the tire side slip angle (Figure
9). Besides the deviations for the less
important moment, all tire models show
a good performance, which was also
validated by comparison with the
measurements.
A typical example of transient tire
properties can be considered for changing
friction conditions at constant side-slip
angle (Figure 10). Here the hfr-models,
ABE encounter vibrations although the
handling models show, more or less,
rapid and relatively smooth transitions.
An example of the influence of the
applied MBS-software I, III (caused
by different integration methods,
internal representation of the test
rig and test, but same tire models)
can be noticed by the longitudinal
force behavior of a dynamic, step-wise
brake moment increase as it may
occur when ABS-braking (Figure 11).
The same limit values with a locked-
wheel (about) are achieved, but
the time histories show significant
differences.
An illustration of a validation
test in Figure 12 shows the crossing
of the hfr-tire models over a cleat.
Despite obvious differences, the tire
behavior is satisfactorily reproduced.
Figure 8: Turning at standstill: illustrations of the aligning moment M
z
as a function of steering angle
Figure 7: Combination of lateral F
y
and longitudinal F
x
force measurements describing combined loading of tire
F
x
M
S
y
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
F
y
G
F
x
M
F
x
dF
x
0
S
x
M
S
x
G
S
x
F
y
dF
0
F
M
F
G
S
y
S
M
S
G
S
x
S
S
y
G
S
y
M
dF
y
0
F
y
M
F
y
F
x
F (s)
m
o
m
e
n
t
M
z
[
N
m
]
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
delta [deg]
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
delta [deg]
IIIA
IIB
IIF
IA
IB
IC
Figure 9: Lateral tire force F
y
and aligning moment M
z
as a function of the tire side-slip angle _ during cornering
6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
alpha [deg]
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
m
o
m
e
n
t
M
z
[
N
m
]
F
o
r
c
e
F
y
[
N
]
IID
IIF
IIIG
IID
IIF
IIIG
IA
IB
IC
IIE
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
alpha [deg]
44
Considering the uncertainties of real
road surface structures, such simulation
results can be used for comfort
investigations.
Through the TMPT investigation
it becomes obvious that a careful
handling and checking of the sequence
tire measurements tire modeling
dynamic simulation of tire characteristics
is necessary.
It is necessary to be aware, that
different tire models, even if already
used previously, can show different results
within the same range of application.
A testing of the tire model to be used
with a virtual test rig, and a validation
of the respective simulation results
will finally guarantee effective vehicle
dynamics simulation with statements and
consequences that can speed-up, and
reduce, costs in vehicle development. tire
References
1) Lugner P., Plchl, M. Tire Model Performance
Test (TMPT) Supplement to the International
Journal of Vehicle System Dynamics (VSD),
Volume 45 (2007)
2) Gipser, M. FTire software: advances in
modelization and data supply. Proceedings
of Tire Society Meeting, Akron (2006)
3) Gipser, M. FTire info & download. Available
online at: URL: http://www.ftire.com
4) Pacejka H. B. Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics,
Elsevier, Second Edition (2005)
5) LMS International LMS Comfort and Durability
Tire User Manual (2005)
6) Gallrein, A., DeCuyper, J., Dehandschutter,
W., Bcker, M. Parameter identification for
LMS CDTire, 3rd International tyre colloquium,
tyre models for vehicle dynamics analysis
proceedings. Vehicle System Dynamics,
43(Suppl.) (2005)
7) Hirschberg, W., Rill, G., Weinfurter, H.
User-appropriate tire-modeling for vehicle
dynamics in standard and limit situations,
Vehicle System Dynamics, 38(2) (2002)
8) Adams/Tire Manual, MSC Software
Corporation ( 2005)
9) Guo, K. H., Ren, L. A unified semi-empirical
tire model with higher accuracy and less
parameters, SAE Technical Paper Series,
1999-01-0785, pp. 37-44 (1999)
10) Guo, K.H., Lu, D., Ren, L. A unified non-steady
non-linear tire model under complex wheel
motion input including extreme operating
conditions, JSAE Review, 22(4), pp. 396-402
(2001)
11) Gim, G., Choi, Y., Kim, S. A semi-physical tire
model for vehicle dynamics analysis of
handling and braking, Vehicle System
Dynamics, 43(Suppl.) (2005)
12) Guo, K., Lu, D., Chen, S., Lin, W. C., Lu, X.
The Unityre model: a nonlinear and non-
steady-state tire model for vehicle dynamics
simulation, Vehicle System Dynamics,
43(Suppl.) (2005)
Figure 10: Changing +-conditions at a constant tire side-slip angle (nominal value +n 0,9), p=80km/h, _7,5
Figure 11: Longitudinal force behavior of dynamic, stepwise brake moment increase under ABS braking, p=20km/h
Figure 12: Validation test illustration. Behavior of hfr tire models crossing a 20x20mm cleat, p=60km/h
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
time [s]
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
IIIA
IIIB
IIE
IIIA
IIIB
IIE
measurement measurement
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
time [s]
6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
F
o
r
c
e
F
x
[
N
]
F
o
r
c
e
F
x
[
N
]
F
o
r
c
e
F
z
[
N
]
F
o
r
c
e
F
z
[
N
]
IC
IIIF
F
o
r
c
e
F
x
[
N
]
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
F
o
r
c
e
F
x
[
N
]
IA
IB
0.2 0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05
longitudinal slip []
0.2 0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05
longitudinal slip []
IIIG
IIE
v=20km/h
IIIA
IIIB
5 10 15 20 25 30
distance [m]
5 10 15 20 25 30
distance [m]
IIIA
IIIB
IIE
IC
IID
IIIF
IIG
IA
IB 1.2*
F
o
r
c
e
F
y
[
N
]
2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
-6000
F
o
r
c
e
F
y
[
N
]
+
n
+
n
+
[
}
0.3
19, 20, 21, February 2008
Kln Messe, Kln, Germany
www.tiretechnology-expo.com
I think its the most exciting
show. We have all the suppliers for
the tire industry in one place. Its
always special to come here and
see the latest developments. Its
also a great location for us
Joerg Nohl, head of engineering,
Continental Tires
UKIP Media & Events Ltd l Abinger House l Church Street l Dorking l Surrey l RH4 1DF l UK
Tel: +44 (0)1306 743744 Fax: +44 (0)1306 742525 Email: colinscott@ukinpres.com
EUROPES LEADING
INTERNATIONAL TIRE DESIGN
AND TIRE MANUFACTURING
EXHIBITION AND CONFERENCE
www.tiretechnology-expo.com
9, 10 & 11 February 2010, Kln (Cologne) Messe, Germany
Design I Technology I Materials I Manufacturing
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www.tiretechnology-expo.com
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!
I think its the most exciting
show. We have all the suppliers for
the tire industry in one place. Its
always special to come here and
see the latest developments. Its
also a great location for us
Joerg Nohl, head of engineering,
Continental Tires
EUROPES LEADING INTERNATIONAL
TIRE DESIGN AND TIRE MANUFACTURING
EXHIBITION AND CONFERENCE
www.tiretechnology-expo.com
Design I Technology I Materials I Manufacturing
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idbZZiZkZgnhjeea^Zg^cVcYdjih^YZ:jgdeZ!VcYhjeea^Zgh
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bZZi^c\cZlhjeea^Zgh
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9, 10 & 11 February 2010, Kln (Cologne) Messe, Germany
UKIP Media & Events Ltd l Abinger House l Church Street l Dorking l Surrey l RH4 1DF l UK
Tel: +44 (0)1306 743744 Fax: +44 (0)1306 877411 Email: colinscott@ukintpress.com
Web: www.tiretechnology-expo.com
www.tiretechnology-expo.com
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48
Airplane take-off speeds are designed to ensure the lift-off speed does
not exceed the tire speed rating. But what factors can lead to a tire speed
exceedance during take-off, and how can such events be prevented?
by Ingrid Wakefield, flight operations engineer & Chris Dubuque, service engineer, landing gear systems, Boeing, USA
Exceeding aircraft tire
speed rating during take-off
A
irplane tires are designed to
withstand a wide range of
operating conditions, including
carrying very high loads and
operating at very high speeds. It is common
for a jet airplane tire to carry loads as heavy
as 60,000 lb while operating at ground
speeds up to 235mph. To accommodate
these operational conditions, each tire
has specific load and speed ratings.
Tires are carefully designed and tested
to withstand operation up to, but not
necessarily beyond, these ratings.
It is uncommon to exceed the load
rating of tires during normal airline
operation because the weight and center
of gravity position of the airplane are well
controlled and understood. However, on
occasion the speed rating of tires can be
inadvertently exceeded during take-off.
Boeing is receiving an increasing number
of operator inquiries about tire speed limits
being exceeded during take-off. This does
not appear to be a new issue. Rather,
advanced data acquisition tools on modern
airplanes have made operators more aware
of tire speed exceedance events.
In most cases, the speed exceedance is
small, only a few knots. Boeing is not aware
of any of these overspeed events resulting in
thrown treads, which suggests that airplane
tires in good condition can withstand these
small speed exceedances without damage.
However, it is important to remember that
at high speeds, heat is generated within
the tire structure.
This heat, combined with extreme
centrifugal forces from high rotational
speeds, creates the potential for tread loss.
Ensuring that tires are operated within
their speed ratings will help prevent
possible tread losses and the potential
for airplane damage.
When dispatching an airplane in
compliance with the certified Airplane
Flight Manual, the airplane take-off speeds
are designed to ensure that the lift-off speed
does not exceed the tire speed rating.
Although rotation and lift-off speeds are
generally expressed in knots indicated
airspeed, the tire speed limit is the ground
speed, which is usually expressed in statute
miles per hour. This means that a tire rated
at 235mph is designed for a maximum
ground speed at lift-off of 204kts.
A number of factors can lead to a tire
speed-limit exceedance during take-off.
Typically, this occurs when an airplane is
dispatched at or near the tire speed-limit
weight and: the airplane rotation rate is
slower than the Boeing-recommended
rotation rate; and/or there is a late rotation;
and/or the tailwind is higher than
anticipated.
Dispatch at or near the airplanes tire
speed limit is most likely to occur during
take-offs from airports at high altitudes on
warm days, because these conditions tend
to drive the ground speed at lift-off of the
airplane closer to the tire speed limit.
However, tire speed limits can be
encountered during take-off in less severe
environmental conditions, such as when
scheduling an improved climb take-off.
Crosswinds can aggravate the situation
by unexpectedly shifting into a tailwind,
which may further increase the ground
speed at lift-off. An unexpected (and
therefore unaccounted for) tailwind
component will directly add to the
ground speed at lift-off.
Take-off procedures
Boeing publishes a recommended all-
engine normal take-off procedure in the
Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) for
727, 737 Classic, and Next-Generation
737, 747, 757, 767, and 777 models, and
in the Flight Crew Operations Manual
for 717, MD, and DC models. In order to
avoid tire speed-limit exceedance during
take-off, Boeing stresses adhering to the
recommended average all-engine take-off
rotation rate of 2-3 per second, which
provides adequate tail clearance margins
with a target lift-off attitude reached after
approximately 3-4 seconds (Figure 1).
Tail clearance margins for all 7-series
models except the 717 are also outlined
in the FCTM. Tail clearance and tail strike
concerns are often the reason flight crews
give for opting to use a slower rotation
rate than recommended by Boeing.
When dispatching at or near the tire
speed-limit weight, which is most likely
to occur at hot temperatures and high
elevations, a slower rotation than the
Boeing-recommended 2-3-per-second
average may increase the actual
49
50
51
groundspeed at lift-off beyond the certified
tire speed limit. In addition, a slow rotation
or under-rotation could significantly
increase the runway distance required to
reach the 35ft point, which is another
important reason for adhering to the Boeing-
recommended rotation procedure.
Wind accountability
The certified tire speed-limit weight does not
contain any margin for wind accountability.
For instance, the FAA-certified take-off
field-length-limit weight typically contains a
conservative factor for wind accountability
of 1.5 times the tailwind and 0.5 times the
headwind. In comparison, the tire speed-
limit weight lacks any such conservative
wind factor. Because of this, an unexpected
tailwind component not accounted for
in the take-off analysis, occurring during
a take-off at or near the tire speed-limit
weight, may increase the true ground speed
at lift-off beyond the tire speed rating.
To avoid a tire speed-limit exceedance,
Boeing recommends to conservatively
account for the tailwind component when
dispatching at or near the tire speed-limit
weight in a crosswind situation. General
guidelines for crosswind take-offs are
outlined in the FCTM. These guidelines
include the recommendation to use a higher
thrust setting than the minimum required
in order to minimize airplane exposure to
gusty conditions during rotation, lift-off,
and initial climb.
747-400 case study
A case study of the 747-400 helps illustrate
this point. The operator sporadically
exceeded the tire speed limit even though
the take-off analyses showed a notable
buffer between the tire speed-limit weight
and the actual dispatch weight. The airline
approached Boeing for assistance.
The study was performed at two different
dispatch weights: 805,000 lb and 825,000
lb. There was a 40,000 lb and a 30,000 lb
margin between scheduled dispatch weight
and the tire speed-limit weight. These
weight margins, which appear relatively
large, only resulted in speed margins of 8kts
and 5kts between the associated ground
speeds at lift-off and the tire speed rating
(Figure 2).
This case study shows the relationship of
a tire speed-weight margin to the associated
speed margin for a four-engine airplane.
Under similar dispatch conditions on
a two-engine airplane, a similarly large
weight margin can be expected to result
in an even lower speed margin, due to
the higher all-engine acceleration.
The same case study showed that a
rotation rate that is 1 per second slower
than normal can result in a lift-off speed
increase of 4-5kts. This is in addition to
the increase in all-engine take-off distance
associated with the slow take-off rotation
(Figure 3).
This illustrates how a slower-than-
normal rotation rate can easily use up
what may seem like a large tire speed-limit
margin, especially if paired with a higher
tailwind component than accounted for
in the take-off analysis used for dispatch.
Maintenance actions
Although tire speed-limit exceedance events
during take-off are not a new phenomenon,
widespread recognition of these overspeed
events is relatively new because of advances
in flight data-recorder technology that
enables easier data acquisition. Airplane
manufacturers, tire suppliers, and regulators
have not yet developed an industry-
accepted set of maintenance instructions
following a tire speed-limit exceedance
event during take-off.
One maintenance suggestion would be
that all wheel/tire assemblies be removed
from the airplane before further flight after
such an event occurs. In practice, however,
replacing all of the wheel/tire assemblies
on an airplane represents a major logistical
problem and likely results in flight
cancellations and/or dispatch delays.
It would be difficult to locate and
ship 18 wheel/tire assemblies to a 747
at a remote location following one
of these events! Additionally, if the
overspeed was very small (say, 2-3kts
over the tires speed limit), it is unlikely
that the tires would have suffered
any damage.
Some operators have elected to simply
examine the tires after an overspeed
take-off event using the normal tire
inspection criteria in Chapter 32 of the
Airplane Maintenance Manual. If no
damage is found, the airplanes are
dispatched normally and no further
maintenance actions are performed.
Based on many years of service
experience, this approach seems to have
worked well because very few, if any, tire
tread losses have been attributed to an
overspeed event.
Based on this service experience,
Boeing has typically not objected to this
practice even though there is no overspeed
take-off capability specifically designed
into the tire.
If an operator has any questions about
the integrity of the tires, the wheel/tire
assemblies should be replaced before
further flight.
Additional information on tire
maintenance procedures can be found
in the airplane maintenance manuals
and in the following documents:
FAA Advisory Circular 20-97B, Aircraft
Tire Maintenance and Operational Practices,
US Department of Transportation
(April 18, 2005)
Aircraft Tire Care And Maintenance,
Goodyear Aviation, 10/04, www.
goodyearaviation.com/img/pdf/
aircraftmanual.pdf.
Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Tire Care, and
Maintenance, http://ap.bridgestone.co.jp/pdf/
Care_and_Maintenance.pdf.
Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Examination, and
Recommended Action, http://ap.bridgestone.
co.jp/candm/recommendedaction.html.
Aircraft Tire Care & Service Manual,
Michelin, www.airmichelin.com/pdfs/
Care_and_Service_manual.pdf.
General practices manual for aircraft tyres
and tubes, Dunlop Aircraft Tyres Limited,
01/08, www.dunlopaircrafttyres.com/
tech_support/dm1172/DM1172.pdf.
Summary
Although it is uncommon to exceed the
load rating of tires during normal airline
operation, Boeing is receiving an increasing
number of operator inquiries about tire
speed limits being exceeded during take-off.
There is no industry consensus on the
maintenance actions that should be taken
following tire speed-limit exceedance during
take-off. At this time, operators, in
conjunction with their regulatory agency,
must determine the most appropriate
maintenance action based on the tire
speed-limit exceedance event.
The best approach is to try to avoid
overspeed take-offs altogether. By taking
the following steps, flight operations
personnel can reduce the possibility
of tire speed-limit exceedance during
take-off: Follow the Boeing-recommended
rotation procedure; when dispatching
at or near the tire speed-limit weight
in a crosswind situation, consider
conservatively, accounting for the tailwind
component; when dispatching at or
near the tire speed limit in gusty wind
and strong crosswind conditions, use
a higher thrust setting than the minimum
required. tire
For more information, contact Boeing Flight
Operations Engineering at flightops.engineering@
boeing.com.
This article originally appeared in AERO magazine
and is reprinted courtesy of The Boeing Company.
52
F
riction has a crucial role in driving.
All forces acting on a vehicle are
put into action via the friction
forces between the tire and the
road, except for aerodynamic forces and
gravity. A human driver can detect road
conditions, but most vehicle dynamics
control systems do not, until the moment
the vehicle begins to slide.
Unfortunately, drivers often fail to
estimate friction correctly, and attempt
unrealistic maneuvers. Road accident
statistics show that up to 40% of accidents
occur in bad road conditions, and
overestimation of the friction coefficient
is often among the major causes.
To reduce the number and the severity
of road accidents, there is a strong
demand to integrate more safety skills
into vehicles. This lead to the widespread
use of ABS and ESC on small vehicle
platforms and of more complex ADAS on
premium, and even some compact, cars.
However, along with driver behavior
and alertness, friction is one of the
remaining key unknowns in the control
strategies of many active safety systems.
The EU-funded project Fricti@n (FP6-
2004-IST-4) has focused on developing,
demonstrating and verifying a system that
provides continuous sensing of friction
for vehicle applications.
The goal is to offer new information
for the vehicle systems to enable them
to operate more accurately, especially
in unusual road conditions. The main
attention has been on the friction
conditions of paved roads constructed
with surfaces such as asphalt or concrete.
The surface conditions researched
included: dry, wet, snowy, and icy.
In general, most vehicle applications
will benefit from more accurate and
continuous friction sensing. Cooperative
driving applications could provide drivers
with more complete information about
road conditions, and well-established
systems such as ABS and ESP could
benefit from an optimal tuning for every
level of friction, reducing the compromise
between high and low friction. ADAS
such as collision mitigation, collision
avoidance, and curve speed warning
could adapt thresholds and intervention
according to the actual friction, preserving
a constant safety margin in every
condition to reduce false activation. For
example, if a collision mitigation system
assumes high friction, it will have poor
performance on snow, since it will brake
too late. However, if the system is tuned
to be effective on low friction, a lot of
unnecessary intervention will occur on
a dry road, causing disappointment to the
driver, who will switch the system off!
Sensor information is central to the
estimation of friction, but for cost reasons
the project emphasis was on making use
of existing or planned sensors in a new
way, rather than developing new sensors.
Three main sensor clusters are used in
the system. Firstly, the chassis sensors
were employed including the basic
sensors of ABS/ESC, steering-wheel angle,
steering torque, wheel velocities, body
accelerations, yaw rate, and pitch and roll.
Secondly, the environmental sensors were
used including air and road temperature,
xy ground velocity, laser scanner, radar,
camera, and laser spectroscopy. Thirdly,
a tire sensor was included, currently
a specific tire-deformation sensor from
the EU Apollo project (IST-2001-34372).
The Fricti@n estimation system was
conceived with a modular architecture,
taking into account two factors. The first
factor was fault tolerance: if one sensor
or sensor cluster is damaged or missing,
the whole Fricti@n system does not
cease to function, but its estimation
accuracy decreases.
Estimating tire-road friction
for chassis-control and driver-assistance systems
The EU-funded Fricti@n project showed great potential road-safety benefits,
including better driver information and improved ADAS performance
by Marco Pesce, vehicle systems, vehicle dynamics and fuel economy, Centro Ricerche Fiat SCpA, Italy
eSafety systems
Driver assistance systems (DAS)
Cooperative safety systems
Navigation Maneuvering Stabilization Pre-crash
IVIS ADAS Active safety Advanced
protective safety
Passive
safety
Rescue
services
e.g. navigation
systems
e.g. adaptive cruise
control (ACC)
e.g. electronic stability
program (ESP)
e.g. seatbelt
pretensioner
e.g. airbag,
structural
measures
e.g. eCall
t= ~10 sec t= ~1 sec t= ~0.1 sec t= 0 sec t= ~ -0.1 sec
IVIS = In-vehicle information systems
ADAS = Advanced driver assistance systems
Fricti@n cooperative applications
Fricti@n onboard applications
Figure 2: The context of intervention of automotive eSafety systems and the impact of friction information
Figure 1: Members of the Fricti@n consortium
53
The second factor was scalability: low-
cost systems may include only a subset
of sensors such as ESC sensors only, again
with reduced capability in comparison
to the full system.
Each sensor cluster provides friction
estimation tagged with quality/validity
information, and a fusion module
provides the final friction estimation
and probability. A learning feature
is implemented too, comparing
environmental data and vehicle dynamics
data, and updating an internal database
used for estimation.
The main output of the Fricti@n
system are two friction values: friction
used and friction potential. Friction used
shows how much friction a driving
maneuver requires. Friction potential is
the maximum friction that the tires can
achieve on the particular road pavement.
The degree of certainty with which the
system believes given friction values is
also provided. This enables other systems
to judge how much they want to utilize
the information.
The Fricti@n system can also provide
an estimate of wheel slip and road and
weather conditions in terms of dry, wet,
snowy, or icy. If tire sensors are present,
then information on tire forces and the
detection of the early stages of
hydroplaning can be offered additionally.
The research was carried out through
simulation models and driving tests in
winter and summer conditions using
three vehicles: a Volvo FH12 truck,
a Fiat Stilo, and an Audi A6. Both
the Volvo FH12 and the Fiat Stilo are
equipped with ADAS developed in
concurrent EU projects such as Safespot.
The full Fricti@n system demonstrated
a near-continuous estimation of friction
potential in changing road conditions,
using sensor fusion and learning features.
Careful checking was undertaken to assess
data validity, and changes in conditions
and driving provided a reasonably valid
estimate in most cases.
Even a basic system, including ESC
sensors only, provides good friction
information, if a certain amount of
friction is used. In this system a double
approach is used: the first method is
based on lateral dynamics (yaw rate),
and the second relies mainly on the
steering-torque information.
The first approach is quite robust
at medium and high driving dynamics,
when saturation of the tire lateral force
characteristic begins; the second is more
effective at lower slip angles, since it may
detect the variation of self-aligning torque.
A local fusion module based on the level
of driving dynamics provides the fused
estimation, tagged with a validity flag.
This basic configuration of the Fricti@n
system proved effective in the detection
of friction variation on a wet or icy
surface, although it is not able to
guarantee an almost continuous
estimation as would the full system.
The effectiveness of the system and
its benefits for ADAS performance was
proved by simulation and experimental
tests on demonstrator vehicles. The
project studied the benefits of friction
estimation using collision mitigation
system prototypes developed in the EU
project Safespot, on the truck Volvo FH12
and on the Fiat Stilo. The distances of
driver warning and brake activation were
compared with, and without, friction
information. Experimental tests confirmed
the reduction of crash energy in different
driving situations and road conditions.
Scenarios with a standing obstacle or
moving obstacle in front of the car were
considered at different speeds and on
different surfaces with friction coefficients
ranging from 0.2 (low friction) to 1 (high
friction). The crash energy index (CEI)
shows the reduction of crash energy
achieved with the friction-enhanced
system compared to the original system.
In conclusion, the Fricti@n project
showed fairly positive results and
interesting perspectives on friction
estimation. It also showed potential
benefits for road safety, starting from
driver information to improvement
of ADAS performance. Further R&D
activity is needed to increase accuracy and
reliability in everyday driving conditions,
to optimize cost benefits and system
integration, and to achieve a full
integration of Fricti@n information in all
vehicle control systems and ADAS. tire
current slip critical slip
Friction available
tire slip
Current operating point
of the tire
Friction potential
=Fy/Fz
Friction used
slip angle
Fy Mz
Mz
Fy
Crash energy index Standing obstacle
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
C
E
I
[
%
]
0.50 0.20
Road friction
30km/h
40km/h
50km/h
Figure 3: Explanation of friction potential, the friction used, and the friction available Figure 4: Basic principle of the double approach used with a chassis sensor cluster
Figure 5: The crash energy index shows the reduction of crash energy achieved with the friction-enhanced system
54
F
inite element analysis (FEA) of
pneumatic tires plays a vital role
during the design cycle of these
complicated structures. The
accuracy and reliability of the results
obtained by this approximate method is
very much dependent on the constitutive
models selected for the description
of the mechanical behavior of the tire
components. The unique molecular
structure of the polymers (natural and
synthetic rubbers) plus organic fibers
used in a tire makes their mechanical
behavior viscoelastic.
This means that they not only show
elastic (or hyperelastic) behavior, but they
tend to dissipate energy upon the release
of the applied load. Time is an additional
variable that should be considered when
the strain is to be related to stress. It is
generally found that about 90% of the
total energy loss in a tire is due to internal
hysteresis of polymer molecules. The
others go through friction between
tire, road, and air resistance (rolling
resistance). To reduce the difference
between the predicted properties of the
virtual tire obtained through mathematical
modeling and the real one, and also to
predict the energy dissipation or rolling
resistance, viscoelastic models must be
used in the FE model.
Many researchers have tried to develop
robust methods to more accurately model
tires under different loading conditions.
1
However, most of the developed models
and reported results are based on the
assumption of either an elastic- or
hyperelastic-mechanical model for the
rubber and the reinforcing parts in the
tires. This is mainly because development
of robust mathematical models is difficult,
obtaining the converged and stable results
is not always guaranteed, more
computational resources are required, and
determination of accurate and repeatable
material parameters is not straightforward.
In this numerical study, an FEA for a
steel-belted tire is presented. This model
was developed based on the numerical
capabilities implemented in the ABAQUS
code.
2
The analysis was performed under
steady-state rolling condition. The
difference between the results obtained
by the inclusion of the viscoelasticity and
the no-viscoelastic model using different
values of the model parameters and tire
velocities were numerically investigated.
A viscoelastic constitutive model not
only relates the stress to strain, but also
the variation of the stress (and strain) with
time is also included in the mathematical
formula that describes the mechanical
behavior of the material. The current form
of the viscoelastic model implemented in
the ABAQUS is based on the Prony series
given as (Equation 1):
Where g
R
(t) is the dimensionless shear
relaxation modulus [g(t)/g(0)], g
i
P
is the
material constant and o
i
G
is the relaxation
time, respectively. This equation gives the
variation of the shear modulus with time.
Figure 1 shows the variation of the g
R
(t)
with time for two different values of the
relaxation times (g
i
P
=0.3, o=0.1, 0.025
second). As can be seen, reducing the
relaxation time leads to a sharper decrease
of mechanical property and also the lower
value at the fully relaxed state.
Figure 2 shows the same variation for
A viscoelastic constitutive model not
only relates the stress to strain, but
also the variation of the stress with time
Finite element analysis shows that the material behavior during the
loading/unloading cycle plays an important part in contact-zone behavior
by Mir Hamid Reza Ghoreishy, Iran Polymer and Petrochemical Institute, Iran
Viscoelastic analysis of
rolling tires using the finite element method
Figure 1: Variation of shear relaxation modulus
with time (t= 0.1, 0.025s).
Figure 2: Variation of shear relaxation modulus
with time (gi= 0.3 , 0.5)
Figure 3: Variation of tan b with frequency
(t= 0.1, 0.025s)
55
two values of the material parameter g
i
P
(g
i
P
=0.5, 0.3, o =0.1). In this case,
increasing the g
i
P
also means a lower
value at the fully relaxed state. In both
cases, it is assumed that a 1-term Prony
series model was selected (N=1).
Equation 1 can be easily extended
to take the variation of the material
parameters of hyperelastic models.
Therefore, for a material-model parameter
such as Cij in a hyperelastic model (such
as Mooney-Rivlin), its variation with
time is expressed by Equation 2:
The Prony series parameters can be
related to the well-known dynamic
properties of the rubbers G, G and
tan b via the following relations:
Where t is the frequency of the cyclic
loading on the material. Figures 3 and 4
show the variation of the tan b with
frequency for the two previously
mentioned sets of viscoelastic parameters.
As it is easier to measure the dynamic
properties using a dynamic mechanical
analyzer (DMA), these relations (3 and 4)
can be used to calculate the Prony series
parameters for a given rubber compound.
A 175/70 R14 steel-belted radial tire
was selected in this work, which has
already been analyzed in previous
works
3-5
under different loading
conditions, without taking the
viscoelasticity into account. The FE
model consisted of 10,402 nodes and
12,321 elements, respectively, as shown
in Figure 5.
The mechanical behavior of the rubber
components was assumed to be described
by the well-known Mooney-Rivlin
hyperelastic model in conjunction with
a Prony series model (see equation 2)
to include the effect of the material
history (viscoelasticity) into the model.
The internal (inflation) pressure and the
vertical load were assumed to be equal
to 0.248MPa and 4,900N (500kg),
respectively. Three linear velocities,
namely, 6, 60, and 120km/h were
selected. Two computational strategies
were adopted in this work. In the first
method, which is called the traditional
approach, a constant linear velocity with
various values of the rotational speed (t)
is used while in the second technique,
a fixed value for the rotational speed
is chosen and the linear velocity was
changed within a pre-specified range to
complete the analysis. Figures 6 and 7
show the flow diagrams of the traditional
and the authors selected methods,
respectively. The other specification of the
model was exactly the same as reported
in references 3-5.
The ABAQUS/Standard was used to
carry out the FE calculation under rolling
condition using the three mentioned
linear velocities and two sets of the Prony
parameters given in Figures 1 and 2.
The analysis was first performed without
taking the viscoelasticity into account
using the traditional approach shown
in Figure 6. The computed value of the
rotational speed was then fixed and
the corresponding analyses using the
viscoelasticity were carried out using the
new algorithm given in Figure 7. The
linear velocity in this case was selected to
be 60km/h. Figure 8 shows the variation
of the longitudinal force versus linear
velocity for three different cases (no
viscoelasticity, viscoelastic analyses
with relaxation time = 0.1, 0.25).
As can be seen, the Force versus
Velocity curves associated to viscoelastic
analyses do not pass through zero point,
and show a positive value for the
computed longitudinal force. These forces
correspond to the rolling resistance of the
tire and can therefore be used to assess
the energy-dissipation characteristics of
the tire, rolling in steady-state condition.
Figures 9 and 10 show the distribution
of contact pressure for no viscoelastic and
Figure 4: Variation of tan b with frequency (gi= 0.3, 0.5) Figure 5: Finite element mesh of the tire Figure 6: Old steady-state rolling analysis approach
Figure 7: New steady-state rolling analysis approach
Figure 8: Variation of longitudinal force vs ground velocity for no viscoelastic and viscoelastic models.
The right hand curve is a zoomed view of the left curves around zero force
56
viscoelastic analyses, respectively. The
relaxation time and linear velocity were
taken to be 0.1 second and 60km/h,
respectively. It was discovered that the
viscoelastic analysis predicts higher values
for the contact pressure than the analysis
in which the effect of material history
is not taken into consideration.
During the no viscoelastic analysis,
the simulation was performed based on
the fully relaxed material properties that
are the lowest value for the hyperelastic
parameters (Figures 1 and 2). Therefore,
the computed values of the contact
pressure in this case (fully relaxed or
no viscoelastic) is lower than when the
viscoelasticity is included in the model.
In other words, in the viscoelastic analysis
the materials that pass through the contact
region do not have enough time to be
completely relaxed, and so the period of
a tire rotational cycle, does not permit
the rubber molecules to completely find
their final state. The contact pressure
distribution for the viscoelastic analysis
with identical relaxation time (0.1 second)
and lower selected linear velocities (6km/
h) is shown in Figure 11. Having
compared the results in this state with
those shown in Figure 10, it can be seen
that, by reducing the linear velocity, the
required time for the materials to be
relaxed on contact release will be
increased. This means that increasing the
velocity is equal to reducing the time and
therefore computed contact pressure is
higher for the linear velocity of 60km/h
compared to when it is equal to 6km/h.
In another analysis, the linear velocity
was kept constant (6km/h) and the
relaxation time was reduced from 0.1
second to 0.025 second. The contact
pressure corresponding to the latter case
is shown in Figure 12. The reduction in
the relaxation time (0.1 second to 0.025
second) causes the relaxation rate to
increase and thus the behavior of the
model will be closer to the no-viscoelastic
case. Consequently, reducing the
relaxation time makes the predicted
values of the contact pressure lower
than in the first case, in which the
relaxation time is four times greater
than the current value.
It is also worth noting here that the
predicted contact pressure for viscoelastic
models is asymmetric about the two-axis
(axis perpendicular to the traveling
direction of the tire). This is due to the
time-dependent behavior of the material
that passes through the footprint area.
The mechanical properties of a material
point that enters the contact zone changes
continuously with time, and when it
leaves the footprint zone, its material
parameter is different to those at the entry
to the contact region. Consequently, the
rear and front zones of the tire undergo
different contact pressure.
In addition to contact pressure, to
show the effect of viscoelasticity on the
wearability of the tire, a wear index has
been defined, which is based on the
Archards model for the description
of material wear. The Archards model
is given by:
Where q is the rate of material (rubber)
loss, k is a parameter, H is the material
hardness, p is the contact pressure and a
is the slip rate. The wear index has been
defined by the product of the magnitude
of the slip rate vector and magnitude of
the tangential force at the contact zone,
as in the equation:
Figure 13 shows the wear index for four
different analyses. In the first analysis that
corresponds to no-viscoelastic analysis
(upper-left contour), the value of the wear
index has been predicted to be lower than
Figure 9: Distribution contact pressure for no viscoelastic model (V=60 km/h) Figure 10: Distribution contact pressure for viscoelastic model (V=60 km/h, t=0.1s)
Figure 11: Distribution contact pressure for viscoelastic model (V=6 km/h, t=0.1s) Figure 12: Distribution contact pressure for viscoelastic model (V=6 km/h, t=0.025s
57
the viscoelastic analysis (upper-right
contour) with the same linear velocity
(V=60km/h).
This is due the lower value of the
contact pressure that has been obtained
for this simulation (see Figure 9). On the
other hand, by increasing the linear
velocity, the slip rate and contact pressure
also increase, which accordingly cause the
wear index to be increased. Consequently,
it is expected that the viscoelastic model
predicts that by increasing the linear
velocity, the tire will have a higher
wear rate.
Using FEA, a series of steady-state
rolling analysis was performed using the
viscoelastic constitutive equations to take
the effect of material history on the rolling
behavior of a steel-belted radial tire at the
contact zone. This was found via
numerical study, which makes it possible
to take the material history behavior
during the loading/unloading cycle
into account. The numerical simulation
results also showed that the tire behavior,
especially in the contact zone, is
dependent on the history effect. The
method in its current form, however,
cannot cope with the relatively higher
values of the Prony series parameters.
Therefore, more robust numerical
techniques than those implemented in
the current version of ABAQUS should
be developed.
Although we have used this approach
for the parametric study of a limited
number of variables and conditions
(contact area), the technique can be used
to investigate other structural parameters
in tire bulk construction. tire
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on tires
Figure 13: Distribution of the wear index (Eq. 7) at the contact zone for no viscoelastic and viscoelastic analyses
It is expected that the viscoelastic model
predicts that by increasing linear velocity,
the tire will have a higher wear rate
References
1) Ghoreishy, M. H. R. A state of the art review
of the finite element modelling of rolling tyres,
Iranian Polymer Journal, 2008, 17, (8),
571-597
2) ABAQUS, v 6.8, Documentation, 2008
3) Ghoreishy, M. H. R. Finite element analysis
of the steel-belted radial tyre with tread pattern
under contact load, Iranian Polymer Journal
(English Edition) 2006, 15, (8), 667-674
4) Ghoreishy, M. H. R. Finite element analysis
of steady rolling tyre with slip angle: Effect of belt
angle, Plastics, Rubber and Composites 2006,
35, (2), 83-90
5) Ghoreishy, M. H. R. Steady state rolling analysis
of a radial tyre: Comparison with experimental
results, Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of
Automobile Engineering 2006, 220, (6),
713-721
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OCTOBER 2009
INNOVATION INITIATIVE
Jean-Claude Kihn, Goodyears CTO, has
undertaken a historic innovation strategy TIRE LABELING
How will the forthcoming legislation
benefit customers?
TOMORROWS WORLD
Michelins view of future standards
and regulations, and how to meet them
L
u
n
a
r
im
p
a
c
t
How the moon will help generate
possible next-generation tires
INTERVIEWS Dr Joachim Neubauer
Standards and regulation, Michelin
Nina Renshaw
Policy officer, T&E
Dr Stuart Cook
Director of research, TARRC
Professor Joshua Summers
Clemson University
Ben Michell Dunlop Motorsport
mmm$j_h[j[Y^debe]o_dj[hdWj_edWb$Yec
59
L
ow rolling resistance and low
tire/road noise are requirements
imposed on modern tires for
environmental and economic
considerations. Tire/road noise, in
most driving conditions, is the largest
contributor to overall vehicle noise.
Social and other surveys have indicated
that traffic noise is probably the type of
environmental pollution that affects more
people than any other type of pollution.
Rolling resistance also directly influences
the fuel consumption of the vehicle,
which leads to a similar influence on
CO
2
and other exhaust emissions.
Although it is often estimated that
a rolling resistance change of 10% leads
to a fuel consumption change of 2-3%
(the so-called return factor), the truth
is that there is no single and universal
conversion from the tire rolling resistance
coefficient to overall fuel consumption
of any vehicle.
The specific influence depends on
several factors. Low tire rolling resistance
seems to be especially important for
medium-speed roads with relatively free-
flowing traffic (like in suburban areas or
urban highways). When traffic is often
interrupted and slow, most of the energy
is lost on frequent acceleration and
braking. On the other hand, on high-
speed highways, the aerodynamic drag
is the dominant factor responsible for
energy losses. However, at constant low
or moderate speed, tire rolling resistance
plays a very important role.
Tire/road noise, tire rolling resistance
and other important tire parameters
like friction, handling or wear resistance
depend on many tire and road properties,
in addition to driving conditions. This
leads to the inevitable question as to
whether there is a compromise in other
areas when tires are designed for lower
rolling resistance. Is there a conflict
between the requirements of low rolling
resistance and low tire/road noise?
One way to investigate possible
conflicts between low noise and low
rolling resistance is to make parametric
studies changing one tire or road
parameter at a time and evaluating
tire road noise and tire rolling resistance
variations due to those changes. This
method gives very interesting results.
However, it is very expensive and
difficult to perform for an independent
research center without tire
manufacturing capabilities.
The Technical University of Gdansk
(TUG) sometimes uses this method if
cooperation with a tire manufacturer
is possible to provide an appropriate set
of tires. A few years ago a set of five tires
that differed in reinforcement were tested
both for tire/road noise and for rolling
resistance. The results are presented in
Figure 1, where the rolling resistance
coefficient (CR) is plotted against the
A-weighted sound level.
Rolling resistance was tested on a
safety-walk surface, and noise was tested
on a replica of dense asphalt concrete. The
conclusion was that tire reinforcement can
be optimized for rolling resistance without
an increase in exterior noise. For interior
noise, the situation may differ, since stiff
tires would transmit more noise and
vibration to the suspension and structure.
Another approach is to make statistical
tests comparing results of tire/road noise
and rolling resistance for many different
tires. If comparisons show that there are
Noise and rolling resistance:
is there a conflict?
Is there any conflict between low noise and low rolling resistance of tires?
by Jerzy Ejsmont and Grzegorz Ronowski, Technical University of Gdansk, Poland
Rolling resistance coefficient [-]
0.0132 0.0134 0.0136 0.0138 0.0140 0.0142
Replica of asphalt concrete Safety walk
A
-
W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d
S
P
L
[
d
B
]
106
104
102
100
98
96
94
92
90
Figure 1: Sound levels for five 175/70R13 tires with different carcasses plotted against rolling resistance coefficient
Figure 2: Drum with ASP-4 (left) and safety walk (right)
60
tires that have low noise levels and low
rolling resistance coefficients, this would
indicate that there is no conflict between
those two parameters. Of course in
contrast to the first method, the statistical
approach is not able to show directly
what makes the tire silent and energy
saving (the same applies to road surfaces).
However, if such tires are selected, it
would be possible to closely investigate
their construction and identify the
parameters responsible for such results.
TUG tests numerous tires every year,
both in relation to their noise and in
relation to rolling resistance, so statistical
evaluations are possible. Rolling resistance
is tested according to different methods,
including methods described in ISO and
SAE standards, both on the drum facility
(Figure 2) and using a specially built
trailer R2 (Figure 3). The drum facility
shown in Figure 2 is also used for close-
proximity noise measurements together
with a smaller drum that is equipped
with a replica of ISO 10844 reference
road surface (Figure 4).
Data presented in this paper was
obtained for typical passenger car tires,
intended for summer and winter use.
Tires were loaded to 4120N and inflation
pressure was adjusted according to their
load index. This paper presents the results
for speed of 80km/h that was judged to be
the most representative for the majority of
traffic conditions, where rolling resistance
is of high importance.
Figure 5 presents the comparison
between rolling resistance coefficients
measured on a very smooth surface, safety
walk, and tire/road noise measured on
a rather smooth surface a replica of the
ISO 10844 reference surface. A similar
comparison obtained from measurements
performed on an extremely rough surface
APS-4 (both rolling resistance and noise)
is presented in Figure 6.
Both Figures 5 and 6 clearly indicate
that the correlation between rolling
resistance and tire/road noise is very
weak, to the point of being practically
non-existent. Indeed, it may be stated
that it is no more probable that a given
tire has low noise and low rolling
resistance than that it has low rolling
resistance but is noisy.
Experiments performed in different
conditions (different speeds, loads and
inflations) show a similar lack of
significant correlation between rolling
resistance and the noise of passenger
car tires, both for conventional smooth
and rough road surfaces.
Unfortunately the number of rolling
resistance road measurements performed
so far is still not enough to formulate
conclusions that would cover all common
road surfaces and experimental designs,
such as, for instance, poroelastic road
pavements. Initial observations, however,
indicate that the conflict between low
noise and rolling resistance is unlikely
to be present for them either.
In general terms, for modern passenger
car tires, within existing tire and road
pavement technologies tested so far,
there does not appear to be any conflict
between low noise requirements and
low rolling resistance. tire
A
-
W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d
S
P
L
[
d
B
]
Rolling resistance coefficient [-]
0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015
105
100
95
90
V=80 km/h
RR tested on safety walk
SPL tested on the replica of ISO surface
R
2
= 0.0805
A
-
W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d
S
P
L
[
d
B
]
110
105
100
95
R
2
= 0.1242
V=80 km/h
RR tested on APS-4
SPL tested on APS-4
0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019
Rolling resistance coefficient [-]
Figure 3: Trailer for rolling resistance testing R2 manufactured and used by TUG Figure 4: Drum for testing tire/road noise on replica of ISO 10844 reference surface
Figure 5: Comparison of rolling resistance coefficients tested on Safety Walk
and close proximity tire/road noise tested on replica of smooth road surface
Figure 6: Comparison of rolling resistance coefficients tested and close proximity
tire/road noise tested on a very rough surface approximating surface dressing
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62
F
ull vehicle simulations cover
a wide range of excitations,
which may be generated by the
driver, control devices, or road
disturbances.
The wavelength and magnitude of road
disturbances can be used to characterize
different conditions. Handling
simulations, for instance, are often done
on local undisturbed ground surfaces
such as measured race tracks and are
based on GPS data. As a consequence, the
very low excitation frequencies mean tire
models based on steady-state conditions
can be used. In the case of ride, discrete
obstacles or road profiles from local
surface measurement are taken into
account small wavelengths with small
magnitudes will be found. Ride is limited
in the frequency area by approximately
50Hz, but the road profiles require tire
models that are able to compute the
contact areas shape and pressure
distribution, and modeling of tire
structure flexibility is needed.
Load cases involving vehicle
suspension strength and durability
uncover special road profiles with small
wavelengths and larger magnitudes, as
well as discrete obstacles, among them
misuse obstacles. The impact-like
character of a tire running into a pothole
excites higher frequencies, and the
dynamics of the tire structure have
to be taken into account.
Some questions arise when related
prototype tests are planned. One of them
is the determination of the critical velocity.
At low vehicle speed, the small amount of
kinetic energy cannot cause larger contact
forces but at high velocity, the spring
preload is not able to accelerate the wheel
into the pothole during the obstacle
crossing time. Therefore, between smaller
and larger velocity, there must be a
condition of maximum suspension load.
The range of velocities between 30km/h
and 60km/h is divided into 10 steps and
two tire-rim combinations, two inflations,
and two obstacles. The number of runs is
80. This limits the complexity in terms of
computational effort for the vehicle and
tire model. A multibody dynamics system
(mbs) is often used for vehicle modeling.
For tire modeling, the load path of
a typical passenger car tire is based on
the inflation pressure, which pre-loads
the structure. The load is carried by belt
and sidewall as tensile elements and not
by spokes. In normal rolling conditions,
contact occurs between the tire and road
surface. To handle misuse deformations,
the contact between the inner surface of
the tire and the rim has to be added to the
model. A second load path is established
if inner contact between rim and tire or
two tire surfaces occurs, as in the runflat
and in the misuse cases.
Looking at structure dynamics
involving contact and friction, finite
element models (FEMs) are usually the
first choice. Because of the large
computational effort, the number of runs
to determine the above-mentioned critical
velocity is limited. Some simplifications
may help to overcome the limitations,
especially if the rim forces are of greater
interest over the stresses and strains inside
the tire.
A starting point in modeling a tire with
FEM could be a structure representation
using rebar elements for belt and carcass
together with different linear or nonlinear
rubber matrix material models. This
leads to a FEM model close to the
physical nature of the tire but containing
a large number of nodes and elements.
Classical reduction techniques such as
condensation are able to reduce the
number of nodes and therefore the
number of degrees of freedom. An
additional way is to replace rebar elements
by elements with anisotropy. However, the
resulting model is still too expensive in
terms of computational effort in mbs full
vehicle dynamics, and with respect to the
required number of runs.
Going a step further, the load carrying
structure is assembled in quad 4 elements,
where the rebars are condensed
analytically to the four nodes, avoiding
any numerical integration. A typical mesh
of the belt is shown in Figure 1. A curved
contact layer at the outer tire surface is
connected to the belt grid by an elastic
foundation. The contact layer has a
different node density that normally will
be of higher density than that of the belt.
The contact or gap nodes are loaded by
the footprint forces in the contact area, if
the gap to the road surface is closed, from
Misuse load cases
and MBS simulation
Simulating full vehicle misuse behavior enables OEMs in an early phase of the
design process to obtain fundamental information on misuse-relevant force levels
and the damage chain with minimal extra parameters or computational effort
by Prof Dr-Ing. Ch. Oertel, FH Brandenburg (Brandenburg University of Applied Sciences), Germany
The wavelength and magnitude of road
disturbances can be used to characterize
different conditions
Figure 1: A typical FEM mesh model of a tire belt
63
which the contact areas shape and the
normal stress distribution is known.
The contact nodes transfer the load to the
belt and carcass. Some additional discrete
elements are used to represent the
bending stiffness of the rubber matrix.
Rotating the cross section generates
belt mesh, sidewall mesh and rim nodes.
Rim nodes move together with the mbs
part rim of the vehicle model. This
simplified flexible structure dynamics
model is able to follow the load path idea,
based on inflation pressure and preloads
in the structure elements. Together with
contact algorithm and friction model,
the tire model RMOD-K FB is built. The
computational effort in this model is
a linear function of the number of nodes
because of the explicit time integration
method. This ensures that the peak loads
are not influenced by numerical damping.
The misuse load case requires
additional model elements, which are able
to generate contact forces between rim
and inner tire surface. The basic idea
before starting the development of the
RMOD-K FB extensions was to add only
a few new parameters and to keep the
computational effort as small as possible.
Looking at radial displacement, the rim
is represented by a nonlinear stiffness in
every rim node. At the structure nodes
of the belt grid, corresponding nonlinear
stiffness elements exists.
The combination of both represents
the inner contact mechanism, shown in
Figure 2. The upper nonlinear stiffness
represents the rim part of the inner
contact and the lower ones are symbols of
the inner surface. If the gap between rim
and belt nodes closes, unilateral stiffness
elements begin to work, expressed by the
gap indicators. In consequence, only one
additional nonlinear equation per rim
node must be solved in every integration
step, and only if contact occurs in that
node, indicated by at least one gap
indicator greater than zero.
Five new parameters describe the
different materials. The rim related
parameter is an elastic-plastic approach
with constant slopes cE and cP. The
border between elastic and plastic
behavior is given by the force FE. Due
to the elastic-plastic behavior of the rim,
an additional dissipation mechanism is
included in the model. The rubber related
stiffness relation is a simple nonlinear
function with two parameters. If results
from material tests are available, any other
non-linear function can be implemented.
In combination, only five new values
are added to the tire model data set.
The model extension based on
unilateral contact elements between rim
and inner surface of the tire is completed
by the initial gap information from the
tires cross section. It enables the model to
deal with obstacles like cleats or potholes,
which are of the same dimension (height
or depth) as the tire sidewall. With a
typical passenger car tire, wheel load
peaks in impact situations such as misuse
tests may reach more than 70,000.
Testing rim and tire local material
properties or measuring the vertical
stiffness of tire and rim are two possible
methods of parameter determination.
The first approach was to measure the
vertical stiffness of the combination of
tire and rim. The results where used for
determination of the five new parameters.
Comparison between measurement and
simulation in Figure 3 shows sufficient
accuracy. Looking at suspension loads, the
vertical force is of interest, and the torque
generated by the asymmetry of the rim.
A test rig was built, able to measure the
rim stiffness at both sides separately as
well as the combined stiffness of tire and
rim. This leads to different rim stiffness
functions on left and right rim sides,
based on three measurements: rim left
and right load deflection relation and the
tire and rim combination with the results
in eight parameters.
In Figure 4, showing up to 60mm
vertical displacement, the second or inner
load path with contact between rim and
tire is not active. In consequence, the
torque remains zero and the vertical
stiffness is a linear function of
displacement. At greater displacements,
the second load path becomes active and
the torque goes up to 900Nm and above.
Using the model extension, the critical
velocity of a simple mbs vehicle model is
investigated. Two versions of the vehicle
model have been built, one using joints
between suspension and body and the
other using bushings. The suspension
geometry at the front axle differs from
that at the rear to show the influence
of the suspension design. The vehicle
runs through a pothole obstacle and is at
equilibrium with constant velocity before.
The front axle results are shown in
upper part of Figure 5. The vertical and
the longitudinal forces correlate with the
critical velocity, which is to be found
between 30 and 40km/h, around 35km/h.
F
z
[
k
N
]
0 10 20 30 70 80 90 100
F
z
M
x
linear
M
x
[
k
N
m
m
]
70
60
50
20
10
0
1000
900
800
700
300
200
100
0
F
z
[
k
N
]
dz [mm]
0 10 20 40 50 60
70
60
50
30
20
10
0
simulation
measurement
f 1 ( s 1)
s 1
g12
g13
( s 3) f 3
f 2 ( s 2)
s 3
s 3
s
( 2)
s
( 3)
Figure 2: Model of the inner contact mechanism
Figure 3: Comparison between measurement and simulation shows suitable accuracy Figure 4: Torque from inner contact, with up to 60mm vertical displacement shown
dz [mm]
64
Only at 30km/h (the red lines), the
wheel reaches the bottom of the pothole.
At any other velocities, the contact takes
place at the positive inclined surface of
the obstacle, and at the last edge, the
maximum peak load is reached. The
bushing version of the vehicle model
generates fewer tire forces. This can be
explained by the relative motion of the
wheel in the joint version, where the
wheel is able to avoid larger force levels
by moving round the obstacle. The front
axle runs into the hole based on a steady
vehicle state. At the rear axle, effects
from the pitch motion, influenced by
the wheelbase for instance, build some
interaction between the impact situation
and vehicle properties.
The correlation between vertical and
longitudinal forces vanishes at the rear
axle (lower part of Figure 5) and the
bushing version generates a similar force
level compared with the joint version. The
critical velocity at the rear axle is higher
than at the front axle when looking at
the results in the vertical force direction.
One reason is the different suspension
geometry at the rear. Another reason for
differences between front and rear tire
forces results from pitch angle excitation
when the front axle crosses the obstacle.
The impact situation expressed by
the time history of the rear wheel load
depends strongly on the pitch angle of the
vehicle. During front impact, the rear axle
is loaded and the pitch angle motion leads
to vertical wheel travel. Reaching the first
edge of the obstacle, the rear wheel moves
up at lower velocity. At higher vehicle
velocity, the wheel moves down when
reaching the first edge, and the impact
loads will be higher. This explains the
differences in the critical velocity between
front and rear axle.
Simulation results are usually
compared with measurements. To do this,
a test vehicle with a complete passenger
car rear axle including differential gear
box and equipped with several sensors
and cameras is built for indoor tests. An
mbs simulation model of the car is used
for comparison. Two different obstacles
are built a cleat and a pothole. Only the
rear axle crosses the obstacles because of
the different track at front and rear axles.
The tests were run by IAT mbH in
Berlin. Through the simulation model
instead of the real vehicle, it was possible
to minimize the number of critical
velocity tests. The measurement results
identified the same range of maximum
suspension loads as predicted from the
simulation. Comparison between
measurement and simulation showed
some limitations of the mbs model such
as the assumption of a massless spring,
or the formulation of bump-stop forces.
The possibility of simulating full
vehicle misuse behavior enables OEMs to
obtain fundamental information regarding
the misuse-relevant force level and
damage chain in an early phase of the
design process. Extensions of the tire
model RMOD-K FB were made in order
to run such simulations.
A major aim of these extensions was to
add only a small additional computational
effort and a small number of parameters,
measured on a new test rig. The
simulation approach to assess a vehicles
overall misuse behavior helps reduce
the number of prototype tests necessary
which involve, at a very late stage of
the development process, the risk of
additional, extremely cost-intensive
and time-consuming modifications
and validation loops. tire
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t [s]
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
5.0
0.0
-5.0
-10.0
F
[
k
N
]
60 [km/h]
50
45
40
35
30
vx_30_joint
vx_35_joint
vx_40_joint
vx_45_joint
vx_50_joint
vx_60_joint
vx_30_bush
vx_35_bush
vx_40_bush
vx_45_bush
vx_50_bush
vx_60_bush
Fx Rear
vx_30_joint
vx_35_joint
vx_40_joint
vx_45_joint
vx_50_joint
vx_60_joint
vx_30_bush
vx_35_bush
vx_40_bush
vx_45_bush
vx_50_bush
vx_60_bush
30
35
40
45
50
60 [km/h]
F
[
k
N
]
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t [s]
60.0
50.0
40.0
10.0
0.0
-10.0
Fz Rear
vx_30_joint
vx_35_joint
vx_40_joint
vx_45_joint
vx_50_joint
vx_60_joint
vx_30_bush
vx_35_bush
vx_40_bush
vx_45_bush
vx_50_bush
vx_60_bush 60 [km/h]
50
45
40
35
30
F
[
k
N
]
60.0
50.0
40.0
10.0
0.0
-10.0
0.1 0.25 0.4 0.55 0.7
t [s]
Fz Front
vx_30_joint
vx_35_joint
vx_40_joint
vx_45_joint
vx_50_joint
vx_60_joint
vx_30_bush
vx_35_bush
vx_40_bush
vx_45_bush
vx_50_bush
vx_60_bush
30
35
40
45
50
60 [km/h]
Fx Front
F
[
k
N
]
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
5.0
0.0
-5.0
-10.0
0.1 0.25 0.4 0.55 0.7
t [s]
Figure 5: The front axle results are shown in the upper two graphs, and the correlation between vertical and longitudinal forces vanishes at the rear axle in the lower graphs
Compounding Resins for Adhesion and
Reinforcement in Tires and Industrial Belts
Penacolite
1
(:
1
(:
C
)
Nytex 4700 DAE TDAE
Q Tg Oil (C)
Q Tg Compound (C)
Physical properties of the extender oils used in the study
Nytex 4700 TDAE DAE
Density (kg/m
3
) 940 950 990
Viscosity (cSt) 700 410 1240
Flash point (C) 220 240 230
Tg (C) -53 -49 -38
HSE classification OK OK Not OK
99
F
or most car drivers, tires are
simply made of rubber and they
have little knowledge about how
sophisticated wheels have become.
Since John Boyd Dunlop patented the
first pneumatic tire in 1888,
1
tires have
evolved, but the requirements of the
pioneer days for comfort, cushioning,
and safety are still valid today.
The development of the car industry
from building inconvenient motorized
coaches to producing the high-speed,
high-technology vehicles equipped
with all possible convenience and safety
features, means the demands on the
interface of vehicle-to-road are increasing
fast. During this evolution, the make-up
of the tire and the raw materials have
been improved continuously.
In terms of the body reinforcement,
natural fibers such as cotton have been
replaced with semi-synthetic fibers such
as rayon, or man-made fibers such as
nylon (polyamide, PA) and polyester
(polyethylene terephthalate, PET).
With the invention of radial tires,
carcass fibers with high strength and
limited dimensional change were needed.
For PET tire cord the breakthrough came
with the introduction of high-modulus
low-shrinkage (HMLS) PET fibers. The
low raw material cost is an extra benefit
encouraging the penetration of PET into
the tire market, and the usage of PET
fibers is increasing steadily.
Development of pre-treatment
PET tire cord has a low reactive surface,
which makes the bonding of PET to
rubber difficult. The bonding strength
is essential to the performance of a tire,
as it ensures that the radial forces are
transmitted to the reinforcing fiber.
Any weakness would reduce the
tire durability during use. With the
introduction of the PET cord, it became
obvious that a modification of the
existing bonding system for PA and rayon
2
(resorcinol formaldehyde latex, RFL) was
necessary. A lot of effort was put into the
development of a pre-activation for the
PET fiber.
The alternative
Over the years, several pre-treatment
technologies have been developed to
improve the adhesion of PET to rubber. It
was found that a combination of an epoxy
and an isocyanate gave the best results.
3
The isocyanate has to be blocked in order
to not react immediately with the water
present in the mixture. The blocking of
isocyanates can be done with various
chemicals. Some of the chemicals in use
release hazardous decomposition products
such as phenol. To protect operators
and the environment against hazardous
chemicals, a safer alternative has been
found in caprolactam. A caprolactam
blocked methylene diphenyl diisocyanate
(MDI) has been commercialized for nearly
40 years under the trade name Grilbond
IL-6. The deblocking reaction mechanism
of the isocyanate is shown in Figure 1.
Today combinations of epoxy and
Advances are being made in adhesives for the treatment of polyester cord
and fabric for rubber applications. Recent product developments include
high-solid dispersions and a single-dip solution for non-activated polyester cord
by Marcus Bayer & Elke Gebauer, EMS-Griltech, Switzerland
Adhesion promoters:
cutting-edge solutions for the tire industry
100
caprolactam blocked MDI are by far the
leading pre-treatment systems for PET
tire cord fabric in the industry. The form
of delivery of the caprolactam blocked
MDI has changed since its introduction.
In the beginning, it was supplied as
powder and had to be ground on-site
before use. This production step was
not particularly controlled. It resulted
in inconsistent dispersion qualities
and therefore varying adhesion values.
With the introduction of Grilbond
IL-6 50%, EMS-Griltech solved this
problem. This product was a ready to
use dispersion with specified particle
size.It provided consistent quality in dip
mixing and consistent particle pick-up
for a uniform adhesion. It was applied
in a two-step dipping process by the
converters.
Advantages
Developments are triggered by the
demands of the market: combining
best technical performance with the
best economical aspects. EMS-Griltech,
as the leader in the global market for
tire cord adhesive systems, shaped
developments considerably.
Products have been optimized in
respect of chemical consumption to
improve the effectiveness of the used
chemicals on the dipped cord. With
optimized production technologies, the
company was able to reach an effective
isocyanate content (functional NCO
groups) in practice, corresponding to
the theoretical value. The content of
the reactive groups is higher than with
alternative materials, reducing the
consumption by up to 15% at the
converters.
4
Not only the content but also the
distribution of the groups on the surface
of the fibers is essential. Key is having
a stable dispersion, combined with
a fine particle size. For this reason, the
Grilbond IL-6 50% F was introduced,
which fulfilled these requirements exactly.
In addition, it offers a reduction of
the sedimentation in the dip tank and
the dip bath and gum-up on the rolls,
resulting in reduced chemical loss.
More important often is the reduction
of cleaning efforts and production-line
downtime. As a consequence, a massive
reduction in dipping costs can be
achieved by the on-site cooperation
of the technical service from EMS-Griltech
and the converters.
High solid dispersions
The recent development of a high solid
dispersion is the next benchmark and
there is a future generation of blocked
isocyanate-based adhesion promoters.
The newly introduced Grilbond IL-6 60%
dispersions offer additional improvements
in terms of foaming, sedimentation, and
gum-up behavior.
Single dip for na PET
The latest development aims at dipping
non-activated PET in one step, providing
the best adhesion properties and fabric
quality in one simple process step. This
enables the converter to switch from
adhesive-activated PET yarn to non-
activated PET yarn, with significant cost
savings on the fiber side. For converters
using a two-step dipping process on non-
activated PET, it denotes a simplification
of the process, offering cost savings on the
production side. This latest development
is commercialized under the trade name
Grilbond EasyDip.
A comparison of the one-step and
the two-step dipping process is shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 1: The deblocking reaction mechanism of the Grilbond IL-6 isocyanate (Caprolactam blocked MDI)
Figure 2: Comparison of the one-step and the two-step dipping process. The one-step process is much simpler
101
Bonding system
To optimize the adhesion strength, the
bonding mechanism of all incorporated
bonding partners must be known very
well. To understand the difficult situation
to bond a relatively non-polar substrate
like PET to rubber, the structure of this
polymer must be analyzed carefully.
The main chain sections of the PET are
non-polar like polyethylene, if compared
to nylon (for example, PA 66). This makes
it nearly impossible to bond any material
to PET without pretreatment. The only
dipolar structure in the chain is the
carbonyl group, which offers only little
polarity. The polar surface tension
5
of PET
is 10.4mN/m, and of PA 66 is 18.5mN/m.
Another option is to bond the polymer
end group with the RFL to the rubber.
3
Depending on the polymerization
parameters, there are more or less
carboxyl and hydroxyl end-groups in
the PET available for chemical bonding.
A typical amount of carboxyl end groups
is 15-25eq/g. In combination with
a typical average molecular weight of
Mn = 23,000 Daltons for PET, the number
of active end groups is very limited. Only
0.05% of the PET could be chemically
bonded to the RFL, which is used as
interface to the rubber. This can be
done during the spinning process with
an epoxy or silane compound, which
is applied with the spin finish.
The chemical reaction takes time and
leads to a slow down of the manufacturing
process. The chemicals used form aerosols
in the spin-process, which can be harmful
when inhaled and special precautions
have to be taken to protect the workers.
Both these features are counterproductive
to the economics of the pretreated fiber,
and in addition, the adhesion strength
is limited.
4
To improve the adhesion strength,
a nylon-like reactive surface must be
implemented. The insertion of hydroxyl
and amide groups is, in praxis, done by
a mixture of a blocked isocyanate and an
epoxy, which is the first dip of a double-
dip system. The mixture of unblocked
isocyanate and epoxy on the cord is
reacting in the heat setting phase of the
dipping process to a urethane.
6
Due to the comparable solubility
parameters
7
of this urethane and PET,
the reaction product dissolves in the PET,
leaving hydroxyl and amide groups of the
urethane exposed on the surface of the
PET. These active sites form a stable
covalent bonding with the RFL.
4
First dip-solution
The most important factor to achieve
the nylon-like reactive surface is that
the epoxy and the isocyanate are readily
available for the reaction. Both chemicals
have to be distributed on the surface of
the fiber very uniformly in order to get
the maximum adhesion levels.
Epoxy
The standard products are poly-
functional aliphatic glycidyl ethers
with low molecular weight. Essential
for these epoxy compounds in this
application is the quick and complete
water solubility, preventing fabric defects
such as white spots. A leading product
for the application is Grilbond G1701.
It combines the instant water solubility
and high reactivity in the dipping process
for shortest processing times.
Isocyanate
In contrast to the epoxy, the raw
isocyanate is solid. To ensure optimal and
safe application onto the PET, the blocked
isocyanate is delivered as a very fine
water-based dispersion. Due to the nature
of the blocking agent, and the deblocking
temperatures way above the boiling point
of water, there is no risk for the converter
of free isocyanate.
The fine dispersed quality of Grilbond
IL-6, together with the epoxy Grilbond
G1701, is best for high-quality cord and
fabric and easy, safe, and economic
processing. tire
References
1. Heissing/Ersoy, Fahrwerkhandbuch, Vieweg Verlag
(2007)
2. Porter, Norman K., Some major variables in RFL
formulations and their effect on dipped cord
properties Journal of coated Fabrics, Volume 23
(July 1993)
3. Durairaj, Raj B., Resorcinol: Chemistry,
Technology and Applications Springer (2005)
4. Kurz, Gnther, Presentation on ISIFM-meeting
(2005)
5. http://www.igb.fraunhofer.de/www/gf/GrenzflMem/
gf-physik/dt/GFphys-PolymOberfl.html
6. Hartz, Roy E., Reaction during cure of a blocked
isocyanate-epoxy resin adhesive Journal of
Applied Polymer Science Volume 19 Issue 3,
p735-746, 09 (March 2003)
7. Iyengar Y. and Erickson, D. E., Journal of Applied
Polymer Science, 11, 2311 (1967)
Figure 3: Illustration of the bonding mechanism of all incorporated bonding partners for optimal adhesion
Essential for these epoxy compounds in
this application is the quick and complete
water solubility, preventing fabric defects
102
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with EMS bonding agents
www.emsgriltech.com
for environmentally sound,
simplified manufacture
and enhanced product quality
at reduced cost.
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Simultaneous analysis
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Crack growth test
Viscoelastic properties E*, G*, Tan
Fatigue
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at Its Best!
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SHORT COURSE ON
THE BEHAVIOR OF RUBBER MATERIALS
8 & 9 FEBRUARY 2010
Queen Mary, University of London (QMUL) and
Tun Abdul Razak Research Centre (TARRC)
LIMITED PLACES BOOK NOW TO GUARANTEE YOUR PLACE!
DOWNLOAD THE FULL PROGRAM NOW!
visit: www.tiretechnology-expo.com
MONDAY 8 FEBRUARY
Polymers, elastomers and rubbers what are they?
Thermodynamics of elastomers
Physics of rubber elasticity
Finite strain elasticity theory
Inelastic behavior
Strength and fatigue of elastomers
TUESDAY 9 FEBRUARY
Design with rubber materials
Failure of elastomer products
Friction and abrasion
Vibration and shock control: isolation and damping
Testing rubber materials and components
To be held in conjunction with the
Tire Technology Expo and Conference
The Behavior of Rubber Materials Short Course
will be held concurrently with Tire Technology
Expo 2010 in Cologne, Germany on 8 and 9
February 2010
The performance requirements for engineered rubber products
such as tires have continuously increased over the last few
decades and are expected to continue to increase.
The conficting demands of weight reduction and reduced rolling
resistance, coupled with increases in abrasion resistance and wet
and dry friction performance, make the tire designers life dif cult.
All rubber components have to be designed and manufactured
using robust engineering principles to ensure that they comply
with the expected performance and lifetime requirements.
TIRE TECHNOLOGY EXPO 9, 10, 11 FEBRUARY 2010
COLOGNE, GERMANY
105
D
iscovering or developing a new
fiber or material for industrial
designs and manufacturing is
a fascinating exercise, but brings
some inconveniences: the process is long,
and the R&D efforts require huge budgets.
Yet needs are constantly increasing and we
are being challenged by new expectations.
Therefore, finding innovative ways to
combine existing product capabilities is
a more promising field, which Kordsa
Global believes should be explored.
In the past, fibers used in industrial
technical textile fabric reinforcements
were limited to polyamide 6.6, polyamide
6, rayon, and polyester, which all have
bulk tonnages in production and
application. Aramid (AR), polyethylene
naphthalate (PEN), lyocell, etc, are
relatively new specialty fibers that have
appeared in the market lately.
Customers using these industrial
yarns are looking for new and superior
properties from industrial yarns and,
as a consequence, superior properties
in the end product.
Yarn producers are seeking new
solutions either by intensifying their
efforts in new yarn production or
optimizing the properties of the yarn
by chemical or physical modifications.
However it is well known that inventing
and launching a new product requires
huge resources, especially in terms of time
and cost. The modification of fibers either
through new spinning techniques or
chemical additives is another approach
it requires relatively fewer resources, and
yet the developments can be for high-
performance applications.
In addition to new fibers or fiber
modification, there are opportunities
to use a traditional fiber spectrum for the
optimization of the final product. Each
material within the stress-strain spectrum
offers attractive properties belonging to
its chemical nature. Polyamide 6.6 is
an attractive material in terms of its high
energy absorption, making it the fiber
fatigue-resistant champion. Polyester
has a high range of dimensional stability.
Rayon (RY) is a high-modulus fiber and
easy to adhere to the rubber. Aramid is a
high-modulus and high-strength material.
The unique properties of each fiber can
be partially transferred to new cord
structures by making proper combinations
of them, known as hybrid cord structures.
It is possible to engineer the mechanical
and thermal properties of hybrid cords
by making proper combinations of fiber
materials compatible with final
applications.
Various hybrid structures are possible,
such as hybrids of AR with NY and PET,
hybrids of PET with PEN and NY, hybrids
of RY with nylon (NY), or PET, and so on.
In recent years AR-NY hybrids have found
more potential in high-performance
tire applications.
As the percentage of aramid increases,
the hybrid breaking strength increases,
while elongation decreases
Engineered solutions
for niche applications
Developing high-tenacity polyamide 6.6 and HMLS polyester industrial yarns for
the tire reinforcement and mechanical rubber markets is an ongoing process
by Dr Berrin Yilmaz, Kordsa Global, Turkey
B
Figure 1: Typical stress-strain curve of twisted cords made of Nylon 6.6 (curve A), Aramid (curve B), Hybrid (curve C)
Table 1: Typical examples of hybrid cord in comparison with the reference aramid and the reference NY cords
AR weight
%
NY weight
%
Twist ratio
of AR/NY
Twist ratio of
AR/Cable
Twist ratio
of NY/Cable
Breaking
strength, N
Elongation
at 44 N, %
Elongation
at 66 N, %
Elongation
at break, %
100 - - 1.0 - 690 0.49 0.68 4.44
70 30 1.0 1.0 1.0 586 1.06 1.50 5.40
70 30 1.6 1.0 0.6 543 2.22 2.99 9.06
37 63 1.5 1.0 0.7 337 3.34 4.23 8.76
- 100 - - 1.0 321 7.19 9.74 28.90
C
A
106
Aramid and nylon 6.6 hybrid cords
are the combination of high-tenacity
and high-modulus synthetic fiber with
high-elongation and low-modulus fiber,
respectively. The mechanical properties of
hybrid cords are maintained and shaped
between the gap of aramid and nylon 6.6
cords as reference (see Figure 1). The
number of plies of each material, and
the single and cable twist levels, have
a pronounced effect on cord mechanical
properties and performance. The shape
and position of the hybrids can be
engineered within this gap by proper
adjustment of the above-mentioned
combinations.
In Figure 1 a typical stress-strain
behavior comparison of AR, NY, and
hybrid cords is schematized. Curve A
is NY cord, and curve B is AR cord, both
having the same twist levels. Curve C is
a hybrid cord example. The background
of the figure shows the microscopic
appearance of cords: from left to right is
AR cord; hybrid cord with two-ply AR,
one-ply NY; and one-ply AR, two-ply NY;
and finally NY cord. If the nylon 6.6
content in the hybrid is increased, the
hybrid curve shape shifts to the nylon 6.6
direction, whereas if the aramid content
is increased in the hybrid composition,
the hybrid curve shape shifts to the
aramid direction. As mentioned above,
since the twist level has a pronounced
effect on cord properties, as the twist level
increases, the shape of the curve shifts to
the nylon 6.6 direction. This shows the
flexibility of designing the hybrid cord
structures.
Some examples of hybrid cords with
different AR and NY composition and
twist levels are given in Table 1. This
table emphasizes the property variation
with different cord structures. It is
obvious that the aramid composition
and twist level have great influence on
mechanical property: as the percentage
of aramid increases, the hybrid breaking
strength increases, while the elongation
decreases and the modulus increases.
However, the contribution of NY
component twist level should not be
ignored to optimize the hybrid properties.
AR is a tensile member of AR-NY
hybrids. It has a very high breaking
strength and tenacity such as 20-22 g/
dtex, whereas NY has 8.0-8.2 g/dtex
tenacity. The degree of ply twisting of
AR in particular has great influence on
the breaking strength of hybrid. Examples
can be given regarding the twist level
versus tenacity change. For instance,
as 1100 dtex AR retains its tenacity by
approximately 80% at around 300tpm
twist level, the same dtex fiber retains
only approximately 70% at around
400tpm of its initial tenacity value.
Although the breaking strength and
tenacity are two of the indispensable
material requirements for tire design,
their optimization has critical importance
for fatigue requirement.
Figure 2 shows a radar diagram of one-
to-one ply AR-NY. In this radar diagram,
AR and nylon cords have been used as
a reference. K728 has been utilized as NY
component of hybrid. NY cord properties
are taken as reference; the other cord
properties are factorized based on this
reference. The breaking strength and the
tenacity of the hybrid seem to be close
to the middle point of the reference cords,
i.e. higher than NY and lower than AR
cords. The higher breaking strength of
hybrids compared with NY can offer an
opportunity for ply reduction in some tire
types. The hybrids retain their breaking
strength after curing in the rubber, and
do not show any significant difference
to that of AR and nylon cord.
Hybrids also enable designing the
strain behavior of the cord. Although AR
has very low elongation at break, such as
approximately 3.5% in fiber form, hybrids
of AR may have higher elongation at break
values as high as 9% and even higher. The
hybrid cord design parameters have a big
influence on the elongation behavior of
the materials. Regarding the partial load
elongations (EASL) of the hybrids, Figure
2 shows that hybrids apparently have
higher elongations compared with AR
cord. The partial-load elongations can also
give a clue about the modulus behavior
of the cords. AR is a high-modulus
material it loses its high-level modulus
when twisted with NY. Regarding Figure
1, some hybrid cord constructions have
high elongations or low modulus values
at low load levels similar to NY behavior.
The same cord changes its stress-strain
behavior by resembling AR cord behavior.
The variation of modulus along the stress-
strain curve gives some advantage in tire
building and tire performance while
running.
K728 fiber has around 5% thermal
shrinkage at 177C with 0.045 g/dtex
Strength
Tenacity
Easl
Shrinkage
Fatigue
Nylon 6.6
Aramid
AR-NY
Adhesion
Weight
Dimensional
Stability
Cure in rubber
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2
The variation of modulus along the
stress-strain curve gives some advantage
in tire building and tire performance
107
The staff and management of Standards Testing Laboratories
gratefully acknowledge fellow tire professionals, engineers
and academics for recognizing us as the
2009 Tire Industry Supplier of the Year.
We were honored for the breakthroughs achieved in our independent,
confidential tire and wheel test lab available to the entire industry which
monitors tire rolling resistance by force and torque methods, and by steady-
state and step-wise coast-down procedures. Whats more, our machinery
division provides the latest tire test machinery technology at exceptional value.
From innovations in test laboratories and machine design, to service on industry
testing committees and boards, our staff has set a high standard of excellence
for nearly 40 years. We are grateful
for the recognition by our peers.
There is no higher honor.
TOUGH ON TESTING
SM
SM
SM
1845 Harsh Ave. S.E., P.O. Box 758 I Massillon, Ohio 44648-0758 I USA
Phone: 330.833.8548 I 1.800.833.8547 I Fax: 330.833.7902 I www.stllabs.com
I TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES
I TIRES, WHEELS & VEHICLE COMPONENTS
I TRANSPORTATION TESTING
I TESTING SYSTEMS FOR INDUSTRY
pre-tension. AR has very low thermal
shrinkage: maximum 0.2% shrinkage
under the same thermal testing
conditions. After combining two yarns by
twisting and then dipping, the resultant
hybrid has shrinkage values around
maximum 2.5%. This intermediate
shrinkage level gives better tire uniformity
compared with NY cords.
The term dimensional stability is
derived from shrinkage and EASL values
of hybrids. The lower the dimensional
stable value shows, the better the
dimensional stability. AR is certainly
a dimensional stable material. Figure 2
shows how the dimensional stability of
the cord is improved by incorporating AR
in the cord structure compared with NY
cord. The dimensional stability of hybrid
gives advantages to the carcass and cap
ply of the tire for better tire growth and
flat spotting performance.
It is well known that NY adheres easily
to RFL with conventional techniques.
However, AR does not give sufficient
adhesion with the same type of dipping,
due to its chemical structure. Therefore
two-step dipping is usually applied for
good adhesion. Hybrids generally require
the same method of dipping to achieve
at least the same adhesion performance
of AR. Figure 2 shows better adhesion
of hybrids compared with AR cord.
AR-NY hybrids offer improved fatigue
resistance compared with reference AR
cords. An increase of nylon 6.6 content
in the hybrid structure positively affects
the fatigue resistance of the hybrid cord.
An increase of AR cord twist level also
positively affects the fatigue performance
of the hybrid. In order to have improved
fatigue performance of hybrid cords,
optimization of AR and NY single and
cable twist levels must be undertaken.
A one-to-one ply hybrid example shows
the improved fatigue resistance of hybrid
cord compared with AR cord in Figure 2.
Considering the one-to-one ply hybrid
cord example in Figure 2, the hybrid is
a lighter material compared with AR
cords. Hybrids can also supply weight
reduction compared with metallic cords.
Usage of lighter materials decreases tire
weight, which has an influence on rolling
resistance and fuel consumption.
AR is a costly material. Hybrids may
offer a cost advantage compared with
AR cord when considering the whole
cycle of the tire.
Hybrids can be utilized both on
cap ply and carcass of tires, and each
component requires different material
properties. High fatigue resistances,
adjustable modulus at low and high
deformations, dimensional stability,
thermal shrinkage, and adhesion
are some examples of the required
parameters. Hybrids can give design
flexibility of modifying properties to some
extent. Tires with AR-NY hybrid cord
constructions are available on the market,
and they may still have a potential use
for new tires and non-tire applications.
Designing appropriate combinations of
hybrid plies for optimized cord structures,
twisting and weaving technologies and
practices of hybrids, treatment in dipping
lines to achieve desired adhesion levels,
and setting the tensile and thermal
properties are all critical steps in hybrid
cord production. In this respect, Kordsa
has built up design and manufacturing
knowledge of hybrid cords that forms the
companys leadership and success. tire
Section 2
Production, quality, and recycling
109
110
Curing rubber compounds
efficiently and cost-effectively
Rubber compounders and tire manufacturers could benefit from reducing
or eliminating harmful and expensive chemicals from the curing process
by Ali Ansarifar, Department of Materials, Loughborough University, UK; Co-authors: Li Wang, Saeed Ostad Movahed
and Farhan Saeed, Department of Materials, Loughborough University, UK; and K Ansar Yasin, Department of Chemistry,
The University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, Azad, Kashmir, Pakistan and S. Hameed, Department of
Chemistry, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
T
he implementation of the
European Union Regulation
REACH, and a need to use
materials and resources more
efficiently to reduce waste and pollution,
have imposed a considerable burden
on rubber compounders and tire
manufacturers.
The methods which are widely used
to cure silica-filled rubber compounds
with sulfur for green tire applications,
do not take into account the exact
requirements for the curing chemicals
and are therefore inefficient, too
expensive, and harmful to health
and to the environment.
Rubber compounds used to
manufacture tires contain several
ingredients. They include fillers, curing
agents, antidegradants and processing
aids
1
. Traditionally, fillers and curing
chemicals have performed two distinct
functions in rubber compounds.
Reinforcing fillers for example colloidal
carbon blacks and synthetic silicas with
large surface areas ranging from 150 to
400m
2
/g, are very effective in improving
the mechanical properties of rubber such
as hardness, tensile modulus and abrasion
resistance
2
.
Table 1: Recipe and ODR test results for the SBR, BR, NR and IR rubber compounds
Ingredients Compound no.
1 2 3 4
SBR 100 - - -
High cis BR - 100 - -
NR - - 100 -
IR - - - 100
Silanised silica 60 60 60 60
TBBS 3 7.5 6 7
ZnO 0.5 0 0.3 1
Santoflex 13 1 1 1 1
Processing oil 5 0 0 0
Cure system 3.5 7.5 6.3 8
ODR results
Minimum torque (dN m) 18 37.5 26 26
Maximum torque (dN m) 56 129 107 137
6torque (dN m) 38 91.5 81 111
Scorch time, ts
2
(min) 16 8 9 8
Optimum cure time, t
95
(min) 80 83 27 34
Cure rate index (min
-1
) 1.6 1.3 5.6 3.9
111
Curing agents, for instance sulfur,
in combination with accelerators and
activators, produce stable chemical
crosslinks between the rubber chains
in unsaturated elastomers. The cure
systems in tire-tread rubber compounds
often consist of primary and secondary
accelerators, primary and secondary
activators and elemental sulfur, which
add up to 11 parts per hundred rubber
by weight (phr)
3
. Reducing the use of
these harmful and expensive chemicals,
or eliminating them altogether, will be
greatly beneficial to rubber compounders
and tire manufacturers.
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
(23.5 wt % styrene, Intol 1712, Polimeri
Europa UK Ltd, Hythe, UK), high cis
polybutadiene rubber (BR) (Buna CB 24,
Bayer; not oil-extended, Newbury, UK)
with a minimum 96 wt % cis 1-4 content,
natural rubber (NR) (standard Malaysian
natural rubber grade L) with 98 wt % cis
1-4 content, and synthetic polyisoprene
(IR) with a minimum 96 wt % cis-1-4
content (Kraton IR-307, Kraton Polymers)
were used in this study.
These elastomers are used in the
manufacture of passenger car and truck
tires. The reinforcing filler was Coupsil
8113 (Evonik Industries AG of Germany),
which is a precipitated amorphous white
silica-type Ultrasil VN3 the surfaces
of which had been pre-treated with bis
(3-triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulphane
(TESPT)
4
. It has 11.3% by weight TESPT,
2.5% by weight sulfur (included in
TESPT), 175m
2
/g surface area (measured
by N2 adsorption), and a 20-54 nm
particle size. This filler is known as
a crosslinking filler.
The chemical bonding between the
tetrasulphane groups of TESPT and the
rubbers was maximized by adding
N-t-butyl-2-benzothiazole sulphenamide
(Santocure TBBS; a safe-processing
delayed-action accelerator), ZnO
(activator) and stearic acid (activator).
A heavy paraffinic distillate solvent
extract aromatic-processing oil (Enerflex
74) was added to the SBR compound
to reduce its viscosity. To protect the
rubbers against environmental ageing,
N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N-phenyl-p-
phenylenediamine (Santoflex 13,
antidegradant) was also included
in the rubber compounds.
Four rubber compounds each having
60phr of Coupsil 8113 were prepared
in a Haake Rheocord 90, a small-size
laboratory mixer with counter-rotating
Banbury rotors. The rotors and mixing
chamber were maintained at 23C for
making the SBR, BR and IR compounds
and 48C for making the NR compound.
The rotor speed was 45rpm. The volume
of the mixing chamber was 78cm
3
, and
it was 55% full during mixing. The filler
particles were dispersed well in the
rubbers by increasing the mixing time
to 17 minutes. Full details of the mixing
T
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
6torque = T
max
- T
min
T
min
T
max
Time (min)
e
d
c
b
a
T
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
Time (min)
0 50 100
120
60
0
Figure 1: Typical torque-versus-time traces by
ODR for the filled IR rubber with (a) 0.4phr TBBS,
(b) 3phr TBBS, (c) 5phr TBBS, (d) 7phr TBBS, (e)
9phr TBBS
6
t
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
TBBS loading (phr)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
z BR/60 phr silica
NR/60 phr silica
Q SBR/60 phr silica
100
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 2: 6torque versus TBBS loading for the filled SBR, BR and NR rubbers
112
conditions of these compounds were
reported previously
5-7
.
The rubber compounds were
subsequently tested by an oscillating disc
rheometer curemeter (ODR) at 140C to
produce cure traces from which 6torque
was calculated
8
. 6torque is the difference
between the maximum and minimum
torque values on the cure traces of the
rubbers and is an indication of crosslink-
density changes (Figure 1). 6torque was
subsequently plotted against the loading
of TBBS, ZnO and stearic acid.
Optimizing the chemical bonding
between the filler and rubber via the
tetrasulphane groups of TESPT is a very
efficient method for crosslinking and
reinforcing rubber compounds.
Figure 2 shows 6torque versus TBBS
loading for the filled NR, BR and SBR
rubbers. For the SBR, 6torque increased
from 8 to 22dN m when 3phr TBBS was
added. Thereafter, 6torque increased at
a much slower rate to 26dN m as the
loading of TBBS was raised to 9phr.
It seemed that 3phr TBBS was sufficient
to start the reaction between the
tetrasulphane groups of TESPT and the
rubber. Similarly, for the BR, 6torque
increased to 87dN m when the loading
of TBBS was raised to 7.5phr. Further
increases in the amount of TBBS had little
effect on 6torque, which remained at
about 90 dN m. For the NR, 6torque
increased sharply from 9 to 55 dN m as
the loading of TBBS was raised to 6phr,
and it continued rising at a much slower
rate to about 61 dN m when the loading
of TBBS reached 10 phr. For the IR,
6torque increased to about 60 dN m as
the loading of TBBS reached 7phr and
remained at this level thereafter, when
the amount of TBBS was raised to 10phr.
The TBBS requirement for this rubber
was slightly higher than that of the NR
(Figure 3).
The filled SBR, NR, BR and IR
rubbers needed 3, 6, 7.5 and 7phr
TBBS, respectively, to fully react the
tetrasulphane groups of TESPT with
the rubber chains.
ZnO was incorporated into the rubbers
to increase the efficiency of TBBS. For the
SBR with 3phr TBBS, 6torque increased
from 22 to 57 dN m as the loading of
ZnO was raised to 0.5phr. The rate of
increase of 6torque slowed down
considerably with 6torque rising from
57 to 64 dN m as the amount of ZnO
reached 2.5phr. For the BR with 7.5phr
TBBS, 6torque increased to 131 dN m
when 0.5phr ZnO was added and showed
no further improvement thereafter when
an extra 1phr ZnO was incorporated into
the rubber. For the NR with 6phr TBBS,
6torque increased sharply to 91 dN m
when 0.3phr ZnO was included, and it
continued rising at a much slower rate
to 112 dN m when the loading of ZnO
reached 2phr (Figure 4). The IR with 7phr
TBBS needed 1phr ZnO to increase the
efficiency of cure. For this rubber, 6torque
increased from 60 to 109 dN m as the
loading of ZnO was raised to 1phr.
6torque subsequently rose to 125 dN m
when the amount of ZnO reached
2.0phr. It was interesting that the IR,
which is the synthetic analog of NR and
is chemically and structurally similar to
it, needed an extra 1phr TBBS and 0.7phr
ZnO to fully cure compared with the
NR (Figure 5).
The filled SBR rubber with 3phr
TBBS, filled NR rubber with 6phr TBBS,
filled BR rubber with 7.5phr TBBS, and
filled IR with 7phr TBBS required 0.5,
0.3, 0.5, and 1phr ZnO, respectively,
to optimize the chemical bonding
between the rubber and filler and
produce a fully efficient cure.
Stearic acid is a fatty acid that is added
Table 2: Mechanical properties of the SBR, BR, NR and IR rubber vulcanisates
Compound no.
1 2 3 4
Hardness (Shore A) 62.5 72 75 80
Tensile strength (MPa) 26 17 37 17
Elongation at break (%) 1308 606 837 404
Stored energy density
at Break (mJ/m
3)
140 49 137 33
T (kJ/m
2
) 75 30 58 17
Range of values 71-89 10-103 46-95 10-23
Relative volume loss in the
abrasion tests, 6v (mm
3
/mg)
126 15.5 - -
Modulus (MPa) at 100%
strain amplitude
0.73 2.2 2.2 3.0
Modulus (MPa) at 200%
strain amplitude
0.93 2.2 3.2 3.7
Modulus (MPa) at 300%
strain amplitude
1.17 2.6 4.2 4.3
Cyclic fatigue life (kc) 777->1000 40->1000 34-99 16-39
Figure 3: 6torque versus TBBS loading for the filled NR and IR rubbers
z IR/60 phr silica
NR/60 phr silica
6
t
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
80
60
40
20
0
TBBS loading (phr)
113
to improve the solubility of ZnO in
rubber. The loading of stearic acid in
the rubbers with TBBS and ZnO was
increased to 2.5phr to measure the
amount needed to optimize the efficiency
of TBBS and cure. For the SBR with 3phr
TBBS and 0.5phr ZnO, 6torque decreased
from 57 to 46 dN m as the loading of
stearic acid reached 2.5phr. For the BR
with 7.5phr TBBS and 0.5phr ZnO,
initially 6torque increased from 131 to
134 dN m with up to 1phr stearic acid,
and then it dropped to approximately 113
dN m as the loading of stearic acid was
increased progressively to 2.5 phr.
However, the BR was fully cured with 7.5
phr TBBS and required no ZnO. For the
NR with 6 phr TBBS and 0.3 phr ZnO,
6torque decreased from 91 to about 83
dN m when up to 2 phr stearic acid was
added (Figure 6). However, for the IR
with 7phr TBBS and 1 phr ZnO, 6torque
increased from 109 to 121 dN m when
1phr stearic acid was incorporated in the
rubber and then, it returned to its original
value when the loading of stearic acid was
increased to 2phr. Notably, the 6torque
values measured for the NR were
noticeably lower than those calculated
for the IR (Figure 7).
Stearic acid had no beneficial effect on
the chemical bonding between the filler
and rubber and in fact, it was detrimental
to 6torque and therefore to the crosslink
density and cure of the rubbers.
After the TBBS, ZnO and stearic acid
requirements were measured for the
rubbers, four formulations were produced
(Table 1). The rubber compounds were
cured at 140C in a compression mold
to produce sheets approximately 2.4mm
thick and cylindrical samples 15.6mm in
diameter and 9.5mm in height for further
work. The hardness, tensile strength,
elongation at break, stored energy at
break, tensile modulus, tearing energy,
and abrasion resistance of the rubber
vulcanisates were determined using
the procedures described in the British
Standards 9039-12 (Table 2). The cyclic
fatigue life of the rubbers (number
of cycles recorded when the samples
fractured) was measured in uniaxial
tension with dumbbell test pieces at
a constant maximum deflection of
100% and a test frequency of 1.42Hz
13
.
The test temperature was 22C and
the strain on each test piece was relaxed
to zero at the end of each cycle. For each
rubber, eight test pieces were cycled to
failure and tests were stopped whenever
the fatigue life exceeded 1,000kc.
Good mechanical properties are
essential for the performance, durability
and life of tire compounds in service. As
the results in Table 2 show, the rubber
vulcanisates possessed good properties in
spite of substantially reducing the curing
Table 3: Sulfur (in TESPT), TBBS and ZnO requirements based on the actual weights of the chemicals measured in the filled SBR, BR, NR and
IR rubber compounds (see Table 1)
Compound S/TBBS (g/g) ratio S/TBBS/ZnO (g/g/g) ratio
SBR - - 0.45/0.9/0.15 3/6/1
BR 0.45/2.25 1/5 - -
NR - - 0.45/1.8/0.09 5/20/1
IR - - 0.45/2.1/0.3 1.5/7/1
z Filled BR/7.5 phr TBBS
Filled NR/6phr TBBS
Q Filled SBR/3 phr TBBS
6
t
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
160
120
80
40
0
ZnO loading (phr)
Figure 4: 6torque versus zinc oxide loading for the filled SBR with
3phr TBBS, filled BR with 7.5phr TBBS and filled NR with 6phr TBBS
Figure 5: 6torque versus ZnO loading for the filled NR with 6 phr TBBS and filled IR with 7phr TBBS
z Filled IR/7 phr TBBS
Filled NR/6 phr TBBS
6
t
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
160
120
80
40
0
Zn0 loading (phr)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
114
chemicals. The hardness was somewhere
between 62.5 and 80 Shore A, and the
tensile modulus between 0.73-4.3MPa
at strain amplitudes from 100-300%.
The properties related to fracture were
also impressive. For example, the tensile
strength was 17-37MPa, elongation at
break 404-1308% and stored energy
density at break 33-140mJ/m
3
.
The tearing energy, which is of
a major importance to the impact
behavior of tires in service, was in the
region of 17-75kJ/m
2
. It is worth noting
that the relative volume loss in the
abrasion tests, was very low for the BR
and below the average for the SBR.
The shortest and longest cyclic fatigue
lives were recorded for the IR and SBR,
respectively. For the SBR and BR, seven
and four test pieces, respectively, lasted
longer than 1,000kc. The IR had the
shortest fatigue life, followed by the NR.
The mechanical properties of the
rubber vulcanisates were impressive in
spite of reducing the curing chemicals
substantially in the rubbers.
As mentioned earlier, Coupsil 8113
has 2.5% by weight sulfur included in
TESPT. The actual weights of sulfur, TBBS
and ZnO in the rubber compounds are
calculated and summarized in Table 3.
As the results show, at a given loading
of sulfur, to optimize the chemical
bonding between the rubber and filler
and to achieve the most efficient cure,
the requirements for TBBS and ZnO were
totally different. This was because of the
dissimilar composition of the rubbers.
The formation of stable covalent filler-
TESPT bonds is essential in rubber
reinforcement
14
, and a large improvement
in the rubber properties was seen, as
indicated in Table 2. Interestingly, stearic
acid was not at all essential to cure the
rubbers.
The methods used at present to cure
silica-filled tire compounds with sulfur,
TBBS and ZnO do not take into account
these different requirements and hence
cannot be efficient. It is likely that
a similar problem exists with the use
of these curing chemicals in rubber
compounds filled with carbon black.
In conclusion, a proper use of sulfur,
TBBS and ZnO for curing SBR, BR, NR
and IR rubber compounds for tire
applications must take into account the
composition of rubber at a given loading
of sulfur. This will increase the efficiency
of sulfur-curing without compromising
the good mechanical properties of the
rubber vulcanisates. Other benefits
include improvement in health and
safety, less damage to the environment
and cheaper tires. tire
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Evonik Industries AG
of Germany for supplying the silica filler.
References
1) The Natural Rubber Formulary and Properties
Index (1984) EUR053, Archives, Tun Abdul
Razak Research Centre, Malaysian Rubber
Producers Research Association. Brickendonbury,
Hertford, UK.
2) Warrick, E., Pierce, R., Polmanteer, E., Saam, J. C.
(1979) Rubber Chemical Technology, 52, 437.
3) Byers, J. T. (2002) Rubber Chemical Technology,
75, 527.
4) Wolff, S., Grl, U., Wang, M. J., Wolff, (1994)
European Rubber Journal, 16, 16.
5) Ansarifar, A. Wang, L. Ellis, R. J. Kirtley, S. P.,
Riyazuddin, N. J. (2007) Journal of Applied
Polymer Science, 105, 322.
6) Ansarifar, A., Wang, L., Ellis, R. J., Haile-Meskel.
Y. J. (2007 ) Journal of Applied Polymer Science,
106, 1135.
7) Ostad Movahed, S., Ansar Yasin, K., Ansarifar, A.,
Song, M., Hameed, S. J. (2008) Journal of Applied
Polymer Science, 109, 869.
8) British Standards Institution (1977) BS 1673,
Part 10, London, UK.
9) British Standards Institution (1995) BS 903,
Part A26, London, UK.
10) British Standards Institution (1995) BS 903,
Part A2, London, UK.
11) British Standards Institution (1995) BS 903,
Part A3, London, UK.
12) British Standards Institution (1995) BS 903,
Part A9: Method A.1, London, UK.
13) British Standards Institution (1986) BS 903,
Part A51, London, UK.
14) Wolff, S. (1996) Rubber Chemical Technology,
69, 325.
Stearic acid loading (phr)
z Filled IR/7 phr TBBS/1 phr Zn0
Filled NR/6 phr TBBS/0.3 phr Zn0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
6
t
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
140
120
100
80
60
40
Figure 7: 6torque versus stearic acid loading for the filled NR with 6phr TBBS and 0.3phr ZnO,
and filled IR with 7phr TBBS and 1phr ZnO
Figure 6: 6torque versus stearic acid loading for the filled SBR with 3phr TBBS and 0.5phr ZnO,
filled BR with 7.5phr TBBS and 0.5phr ZnO, and filled NR with 6phr TBBS and 0.3phr ZnO
160
120
80
40
0
6
t
o
r
q
u
e
(
d
N
m
)
Stearic acid loading (phr)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
z Filled BR/7.5phr TBBS/ 0.5phr ZnO
Filled NR/6phr TBBS/0.3phr ZnO
Q Filled SBR/3phr TBBS/0.5phr ZnO
Proudof the
technologywe put
intoevery tire
W
ith the combined
resources and experience
of Bartell, RMS and
Steelastic, the Pettibone Tire
Equipment Group continues to
be at the forefront of innovative
new tire technology. New technolo-
gy that continues to automate
production, while saving valuable
resources, labor and materials.
And new technology that allows
us to continue engineering even
greater quality and reliability into
our systems.
Proud of the technology we put into every tire
Bartell Machinery LTD
Telford, England:
44-1-952-201291
Fax 44-1-952-201083
sales@bartellmachinery.co.uk
Bartell Machinery Systems LLC
Rome NY 13440
315-336-7600 Fax 315-336-0947
sales@bartellmachinery.com
www.bartellmachinery.com
RMS Equipment Company
Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2G 4J4
519-749-4634
Fax 519-749-4613
rmssales@rmsequip.com
www.rms-ca.com
The Steelastic Company
Akron OH 44310
330-633-0505
Fax 330-633-0527
sales@steelastic.com
www.steelastic.com
The Pettibone Tire Equipment Group
Asia Representative Office
4-21, Shin-Nishikata,Kuwana
Mie, Japan 511-0863
tisobe@steelastic.com
www.steelastic.com
RMS is well known as a designer
and manufacturer of complex
rubber extrusion equipment and
roller die heads, as well as first and
second stage radial tire building
machines. In addition, Steelastic
and Bartell offer one-stop shopping
for many types of tire component-
making machinery systems, includ-
ing bead lines, automatic apex
systems, automatic bias and ply
cutter systems, gum edgers, bead
evaluation stations and cap strip
production systems.
Look to the Pettibone Tire
Equipment Group to offer
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service to the tire industry. With
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and operational world wide...
Bartell, RMS and Steelastic togeth-
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ty tire component machinery, as
well as tire building machinery,
at substantial cost savings to
our customers.
116
S
ealed flexible rubber bags are
inflated inside uncured tires
during the vulcanization process.
When the mold closes, air and
vapor or hot water circulate automatically
into the bladder. Under heat and pressure
conditions, the expandable bladder
inflates into the inner surface of tire. After
the green tire is shaped against the outer
mold surface, the bladder deflates.
Curing bladders are one of the most
severe applications for rubber in terms
of heat and flexing resistance. The bladder
composition, as usual, may contain
butyl rubber, polychloroprene rubber,
reinforcing carbon black, oil, resin
and other usual ingredients.
Since bladder compounds have a resin
cure and are used in high temperatures,
increasing thermal stability is one of the
most important subjects for them.
The resin-cure system does not
use any sulfur and is used when high
thermal resistance and low pressure set
is important. The curing reaction in this
system is slow, so it may need halogenated
activators. The advantages of this curing
system is that it can lead to obtaining
ozone resistant compounds and
eliminating the tendency to scorch
under high temperatures.
Heat produced during the service
causes decomposition of the crosslinks
network in the compound and reduces
modulus. In Butyl compounds 1,3-bis
(citra conimido methyl benzene) can fix
modulus and keep crosslink density by
forming stable carbon-carbon links.
In addition, it can control heat build-
up, increase thermal resistance, resistance
in dynamic flexes, reversion resistance,
flex-cracking resistance and flexibility.
It also improves compression set, and
the tensile and vulcanized physical
properties.
Experimental work
The bladders discussed here contain 1,3-
bis (citra conimido methyl benzene),
the amount depending on the type
of polymer and the cure system used.
The formulation is shown in Table 1.
The 1,3-bis (citra conimido methyl
benzene) is thermally stable at normal
processing temperature and has a melting
point below 90C. Thus its solubility and
dispersion will not be a problem. The
Increased production rate
through improved bladder compound
Increasing the thermal stability of bladder compounds, while preserving
other processing properties, can improve cracking resistance and flexibility,
and reduce bladder failures
by Maryam Mokhtarimehr and A.G. Moteshareie, laboratory manager and compounding manager, respectively,
of Dena Tire, Iran
Table 1: Formulation of compounds
Compound Ingredients Control Trial
Butyl rubber 100 100
Neoprene 5 5
Carbon black 50 50
Oil 7.5 7.5
Fatty acid 1.5 1.5
Zinc oxide 5 5
Resin 10 10
1,3-bis (citra conimido methyl
benzene)
- 0.75
Figure 1: The average of cure cycles by Control and Trial bladders in size 16A
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
deformed
319
197
236
360
337
212
0 0
blown out bared creased
Type of failure
Figure 2: The average of cure cycles by Control and Trial bladders in size 16B
deformed blown out bared creased
Type of failure
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
159
224
290
233
286
317
222
268
117
solubility is easy and the dispersion
occurs well into an internal mixer.
It resists decomposition up to 240C.
To obtain better dispersion in a
multiple-stage mixing, it should be added
at the masterbatch stage. The dispersion
may not be optimized if the mixing
temperature is below 90C. However,
to ensure easier and more effective
dispersion, it should be added at the
first (non-productive) mixing stage.
In this research, bladders were tested
in truck sizes 24A and 24RIB and light-
truck sizes 16A and 16B.
Discussion and results
Subject to constant curing conditions, the
average cure cycles of four sizes of trial
bladders 16A, 24A, 24RIB, and 16B
are more than in the control. Failure
through blow-outs is reduced in these
bladders (Figures 1-4).
Most of the trial bladders are scrapped
because of their creased and deformed
shape. These two failures are slightly
better than the other scrapped bladder
failures. In 16B, these two failures are
observed with less than the average
cure cycle (Figure 5).
Conclusion
The average cure cycles undergone
by the trial bladders is more than that
of the control bladder (Figure 6). These
bladders have less fracturing and longer
life. Most of the bladders suffered
deformation and abrasion and finally
appear deformed (Figure 7). It seems
the quality of compound in these
bladders is improved and they have longer
life and better efficiency compared to the
control bladder. Increased life duration is
observed in all the sizes (Figure 8). tire
deformed blown out
bared
Type of failure
71
94
Figure 3: Average of cure cycles by Control and Trial bladders in size 24RIB
250
200
150
100
50
0
187
239
88
0
Figure 4: Average of cure cycles by Control and Trial bladders in size 24A
244
159
255
246
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
deformed blown out
Type of failure
Figure 6: Total cure cycles with all failures by Control and Trial bladders
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
16A 16B 24A 24RIB
Bladder size
245
284
98
214
312
324
253
111
16A
Figure 8: Increase in bladder life compared to Control
16B 24A 24RIB
Bladder size
25
20
15
10
5
0
21.5
21.5
Figure 7: The average of scrapped Control and Trial bladders in all sizes
deformed blown out bared
Type of failure
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
369
312
30
9
65
78
3 15
creased
11.5
15
deformed blown out bared creased
Type of failure
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
300
334
166
153
316
268
175
158
Figure 5: Total number of cure cycles by Control and Trial bladders in all sizes
References
1) Patitsas, P. Self-releasing curing bladders,
December 2001.
2) Rubber Industries Engineering and Research Co,
Principle of Rubber Compounding and Technology
Samar Publisher.
3) New material general information and guidelines
for optimal use, Flexsys, BV Technical Bulletin,
1996.
4) Anti riversion agent, an overview, Flexsys, BV
1996.
118
Rubber devulcanization:
a successful project
DevulCO2 shows the way to successful rubber devulcanization, and its commercial
application could revolutionize the use of the huge amount of waste tire rubber now
that it can no longer be disposed of in landfill sites
by Andrew James, Smithers Rapra Technology, UK
D
evulCO2, the Technology
Strategy Board (TSB) funded
research project, has achieved its
aims of developing a continuous
and effective devulcanization system for
the production of devulcanized rubber
from waste tires. The project concluded
on April 30, 2009, having successfully
achieved all its goals and objectives.
The DevulCO2 project was instigated
to provide an answer to the EU ban on
disposing of waste tire rubber in landfill
sites that came into force on July 1, 2006.
The project results have now made the
300,000 tons of waste rubber destined
for landfill sites in the UK a viable
commodity. With a further two million
tons of waste tires available within the
rest of the EU, the technology developed
from the project will be in demand.
The steady increase in commodity
prices due to increasing global demand
has ensured major interest from
compounders in DevulCO2 and finding
a technically competent, economically
viable, and environmentally friendly
solution to the waste problem. It is clear
that enabling manufacturers to reuse
this large quantity of rubber has great
potential benefits, both to them and the
environment, but prior to the DevulCO2
project, efforts to substitute recycled
rubber for virgin rubber had been largely
unsuccessful. Past failures were due to
the poor mechanical properties achieved
when large volumes were used to produce
final products, processibility problems,
or economic considerations.
The continuing existence of this
potentially exciting and lucrative market
opportunity led to a number of different
devulcanization techniques being
developed aiming to regenerate rubber
for the manufacture of high-quality
rubber products. DevulCO2 has
developed the technology to exploit
this market.
The DevulCO2 project ran from
November 2006 and was funded by the
TSB within its Design and Manufacture
of Sustainable Products program. Projects
within this program are designed to
develop eco-friendly and sustainable
processes that will benefit SMEs based
in the UK. More than US$689,000 of
direct financial assistance was provided
by the TSB, with the project partners
matching the amount between them.
In addition to Smithers Rapra, the
consortium partners were PJH
Partnership, Martins Rubber Company,
BD Technical Polymer, J. Allcock & Sons,
and Charles Lawrence International.
The project satisfied its two key aims.
The first aim was to develop a novel,
effective and commercially competitive
devulcanization system for the production
of devulcanized rubber from waste tire
crumb. The second aim was to evaluate
this devulcanized rubber as a replacement
for virgin rubber in the manufacture
of a variety of high-added-value rubber
products within the general rubber
goods sector.
The project has been extremely
successful in achieving both of these
The first aim was to develop a novel,
effective and commercially competitive
devulcanization system
The DevulCO2 project is a positive step forward for new products made from devulcanized rubber from waste tires
119
goals, and the new technology developed
has been proven within a commercial
environment. The devulcanized rubber
can be easily processed via a range of
standard rubber processing operations,
such as extrusion and calendaring, into
good quality blanks for re-vulcanizing.
The re-vulcanizing step can then be
achieved using techniques such as
injection molding, compression molding,
and transfer molding. This flexibility
enables a wide range of high-added-value,
high-quality products to be produced.
The physical testing results obtained
impressive results on products
manufactured from 100% of the
devulcanized rubber showing tensile-
strength values in excess of 18MPa
combined with an elongation-at-break
of 350%. The novel process is capable
of recovering up to an amazing 80%
of the physical properties of original
virgin compounds.
The proven process utilizes standard
processing equipment with minimal
modification and will be easily scaled
up to commercial levels of production.
A key benefit of this process breakthrough
is that it does not present any additional
health and safety or environmental
concerns to the rubber industry.
The project has also demonstrated that
it is possible to blend the devulcanized
rubber with either virgin rubber or virgin
rubber compounds in a rubber intermix
to increase the range of products that
can be manufactured. The economic
and commercial assessments carried
out on the process have shown it to be
a cost-effective solution to the waste tire
problem and provide excellent business
opportunities.
The technology is now ready to
be scaled up to commercial levels of
production, it does not present any
additional health and safety or
environmental concerns, and the
process is extremely cost-effective.
The consortium is now able to take
the products to market.
The success of DevulCO2 has secured
further funding from the TSB for the
ReMould project, which will transfer the
devulcanization technology into other
high-tonnage waste rubber products such
as EPDM weather strip, further refine the
processibility to enable profile extrusions
to be produced, and extend the range of
final products that can be manufactured
such as the retreading of truck tires. This
project will commence in the summer
of 2009, will run for two years, and will
include two new partners: Kingpin Tyres
and London Metropolitan University. tire
It is possible to blend the devulcanized
rubber with either virgin rubber or virgin
rubber compounds in a rubber intermix
High-quality injection, compression or transfer-molded products can be created using the re-vulcanizing process
The technology is ready for commercial production levels
A number of technological innovations including a quick-cleaning gear
pump and a co-extrusion head are creating benefits for the tire industry
by Dr Tim Pohl, Troester GmbH & Co KG, Hannover, Germany
Tire industry innovations
including co-extrusion heads and Ethernet line control
Figure 1: Co-extrusion Y-head
120
T
roester is looking back on a
successful year and heading
optimistically into the future.
At the same time the company has
implemented technological innovations
that will benefit the tire industry.
Co-extrusion head
Of particular note is the development
of a new co-extrusion head with
a special clamping system (Figure 1).
The concept has already proved successful
in practice for the manufacture of sidewall
and apex profiles. The compact design
allows space-saving integration into
flexible manufacturing lines with short
profile running times.
The movable head parts (upper and
lower part) are connected by means of
lateral Y-joint rods, and are pulled toward
the fixed-head middle part by only one
hydraulic cylinder each. The clamping
force of the lateral tie rods acts vertically
on the sealing faces of the flow channels.
The flow channels are matched to
customers individual requirements and
their products with the use of finite-
element flow simulation. The streaming
history for the rubber in the head is
analyzed and adopted in order to achieve
a constant swelling behavior at the head
outlet, and a straight flow. The general
goal is a material-independent flow
channel construction in order to allow
an easier design of the subsequent
flow segments.
In addition to an appropriate forming
of the extrudate, the rubber compound
guiding parts should be designed with
the lowest possible pressure consumption.
This helps reduce the compound
temperature at the outlet and increase
the extrusion speed.
The features as a whole meet the
demand of the tire industry for flexible
manufacturing equipment to achieve high
productivity of the line and an increased
variety of products with the best price-
performance ratio.
Quick-cleaning gear pump
The use of a gear pump connected to
the extruder is state of the art for high-
pressure applications such as straining
or wire coating. The gear pump is fed
by the extruder and allows a volumetric
conveying characteristic of the compound.
The product quality is enhanced by the
stable discharge and by low tolerance
deviations. Using a gear pump enables
stable process conditions to be achieved
quickly, which is advantageous when
using such a system in cap strip, bead,
and wire coating lines.
However a gear pump is not self-
cleaning. In case of compound changes
or longer production stops, the system is
dismounted and disassembled. Therefore
Troester developed a quick-cleaning gear
pump for reducing the cleaning cycle.
Without using any tools, all parts are
The flow channels are matched to
customers individual requirements and
their products with use of FE simulation
Troesters headquarters in Hannover, Germany
121
individually removed from the pump and
can be quickly cleaned by the operator.
The gears and bearings are part of
a gear package set, which is hydraulically
pushed out of the gearbox housing and
can be replaced by a second clean set
(Figure 2). All other parts are easily
accessible and cleaned manually.
This new device enables a broader
application field for gear pumps, and
increases the acceptance of this machine
type in the tire industry.
Line control via Ethernet
The extrusion line control systems are
part and parcel of Troesters equipment
portfolio. The extrusion unit works
with the downstream equipment as
a functional entity, enabling constant
product dimensions in the various
production stages. The control is
developed, designed and programmed
in-house using the latest available
electrical components. Specification
and preferred subsuppliers are considered
according to the individual needs of
the tire manufacturer. Typically the line
control consists of a PLC-PC architecture.
In the field area all electrical units such
as drives, sensor, measuring equipment,
identification, and marking system are
controlled by PLC. For many years the
most well-known field bus systems with
the distributed I/O stations have been
used. The advantage is reduced cabling on
customers sites and more efficient checking
of machine groups before delivery.
In a further development step, Troester
recently installed complex tire production
lines by using Ethernet instead of typical
field bus systems. More than 80 units,
including drives, distributed I/O stations,
measuring devices, PLCs and line-PC
were linked together.
The line-PC is used for visualization
and process trending, recipe handling,
and the long-term production and quality
protocol. For each production run, the
production parameters as well as the
quality results will be stored. Such
production results are summed up
in statistically measured parameters
such as CPK values (statistical process
ratio). As well as providing long-term
information about the production history,
the data can also be used for labeling
the manufactured goods.
There is a tendency toward connecting
the line-PC to the plant network to receive
the pre-selected daily production schedule
of the line from a host, and to provide the
production data automatically from the
line via network to a plant server. State
of the art is a configuration with the PC as
a redundant system to ensure that quality
documentation and production reports
are provided without any time lag.
The thorough Ethernet concept
supports teleservice up to each end-
connected unit. This way Troester
engineers can support the operators on
site in real time from their headquarters
in Hannover, Germany. Ethernet supports
the tendency of merging the company
network with the entire line control.
Tire manufacturers around the world
face daily challenges that require a variety
of new manufacturing approaches. By
using Troesters engineering capacity,
many ideas result in innovations and end
up increasing the bottom-line results. tire
This new device enables a broader
application field for gear pumps, and
increases acceptance of this machine
Figure 2: Quick-cleaning gear pump
122
w w w . t r o e s t e r . d e
The tire industry is striving to
constantly improve its products
and manufacturing processes.
Our engineers develop inno-
vative production lines together
with our customers to meet
these requirements.
The TROESTER development
team uses state-of-the-art
computer-aided methods which
enable quick individual design-
ing of the line components.
Material ows, compound
temperatures and line speeds
are adjusted to the customers
requirements. Additionally, our
customers can use the exten-
sive test equipment in our
well equipped TROESTER
technology center to conduct
experiments and directly imple-
ment knowledge gained in
development.
TROESTER turns innovative
ideas into reality.
TROESTER GmbH & Co. KG has been devel op-
i ng i nnovati ve machi nes and l i nes for the
rubber and pl asti cs processi ng i ndustry si nce
1892. If you wi sh to know what i nnovati ons
we can provi de, then send us an e-mai l
to I nnovat i ons@t r oest er. de
T
he VMI MAXX tire building
machine can be equipped with a
bead-apex handling and green-tire
removal system, based on a robot.
Automating bead loading and green-tire
removal disengages the operator from
a short-cyclic task in front of the machine
and gives him (or her) time to handle
components on one or two VMI MAXX
machines and reduces the total amount
of required operators.
Each bead apex assembly (BA) lies
on a specially designed VMI carrier. The
carriers are stacked on a cart and fed into
the VMI MAXX. To take full advantage of
this system, VMI developed a stacking
module for its bead apex assembly
machines. This module, in combination
with the new robotic system for bead
loading in the VMI MAXX, creates further
possibilities for full hands-off production.
In a nutshell the system consists of
an automatic loading unit at the bead
apex assembly machine, carriers for
storage and internal transportation,
and an automatic unloading unit at the
tire building machine. There are several
requirements for such a system.
Automatic stacking of the BAs in the
bead apex-assembly machine requires
automatic quality monitoring of each BA
produced, automatic placement of the BAs
onto carriers, and controlled orientation
of the BA splice position on the carrier.
Storage and internal transportation
requires the optimal quality of
produced BAs to be maintained while
in intermediate storage. The carrier must
be of a sturdy design (long lifetime) and
A stacking system has been developed for bead apex assembly machines that,
combined with a robotic loading system, enhances hands-off tire production
by J.K. Grashuis, VMI-Group, the Netherlands
Automatic bead apex stacking
and loading into a tire building machine
Figure 1: The robot gripper is used to pick up the green tire. The gripper is servo-driven and can handle
a BA range from 13-24in, without any manual adjustments required by the machine operator, aiding efficiency
124
Figure 2: The VMI MAXX machine can be equipped with a robotic bead apex handling and green tire removal system
the stack of carriers must be stable and
self-supporting. Special carts for easy
handling around the machines are needed
and minimum floor space for intermediate
storage is required. There should also
be the possibility of handling stacks in
an automatic warehouse and of RFID
identification on carts.
Automatic loading of the BAs in
the tire building machine requires that
there be no sticking of bead and apex
compounds to the carrier, reliable
loading of bead-apex assemblies, and
controlled orientation of the BA splice
in the green tire, as well as continuous
production of approximately 50 minutes
before reloading.
The carrier
Based on the requirements listed above,
a special carrier was developed and
protected by a patent. The carrier is
injection-molded and made of high-
quality plastic. The carriers are optimized
for storage of the BA. The BA lies on
a conical surface with an angle of 10, to
support the shape of the initially hot apex.
The carrier has an outside rim to keep
the BA sufficiently centered and to protect
the apex and it has a fixed orientation in
the stack. This facilitates control over the
apex-splice in the tire. The carrier comes
in two sizes: one up to 20in and the other
up to 24in.
The open shape of the carrier prevents
accumulation of heat when the fresh
BA is stored on the carrier. The carriers
upper surface has a texture to prevent
the BA sticking.
For internal transportation the carriers,
which have a vertical pitch of 24mm,
can be stacked up to a height of 56 pieces
( 1.4m). The stack is stable and self-
supporting. VMI supplies special carts,
equipped with wheels for easy handling.
For intermediate storage, with a stack
height of 56 pieces, 118 small carriers
(max 20in) or 90 big carriers (max 24in)
can be stored per m
2
. The storage capacity
can be multiplied by storing
the stacks in a rack.
To aid logistic control, each cart
can be equipped with an RFID chip
for logistical identification of the stack
and for track-and-trace functionality.
BA stacking module
The BA stacking module that is added to
a bead-apex assembly machine places the
BA directly onto a carrier and stacks the
loaded carriers onto a cart. After adding
the BA stacking unit, it is still possible to
use the bead apex assembly machine in
the conventional way. Implementing this
system means no operator checks or even
touches the BA during the whole process,
and an automatic VMI vision system
monitors the quality of the BA.
Tire building machine
The central part of the module that is
added to the VMI MAXX tire building
machine is a robot that is located between
breaker and tread, and carcass servicer.
Up to three stacks of carriers with BAs
can be loaded into the system. This
equals 168 BAs, or 84 tires.
The robot gripper picks the BA from
the carrier by centering and actively
separating it. Also the separation of
the carriers is done actively, resulting
Table 1: Requirements for a stacking system
Automatic stacking of the bead apex assemblies in the bead apex assembly machine
Automatic quality monitoring of the produced bead apex assemblies
Placement of the bead apex assemblies into carriers
Controlled orientation of the bead apex (splice position) in the carrier
Avoidance of distortions of produced bead apex assemblies while in intermediate storage
Carrier must be of a sturdy design (long lifetime)
Stack of carriers must be stable and self supporting
Minimum floor space for intermediate storage
Placement of stack in automatic warehouse must be possible
RFID identification on stack of carriers must be possible
No sticking of bead and apex compounds to the carrier
Easy loading of bead apex assemblies into tire building machine
Autonomy of approximately 50 minutes before reloading in the tire building machine
Figure 3: The robot is mounted on a solid portal, and contains the conveying system and safety light screens
125
126
in a reliable process. The empty carrier
is placed onto a stack for empty carriers,
of which the system can also contain
three. The BA is placed into the VMI
MAXX offline bead loader, which assures
an optimal positioning accuracy of the
BA in the bead setter of the tire building
machine.
After adding the robot system
it will if necessary still be possible
to load BAs into the tire building machine
in the conventional way.
The gripper is servo-driven and
can handle 13-24in without manual
adjustment. The same gripper is used to
pick up the green tire. Again no manual
adjustments are required.
The robot can place the green tire onto
a customer-specific unloading position,
such as a conveyor system. All robot
tasks are performed within the tire-
building machine cycle time, which
is less than 40 seconds.
The robot is mounted on a solid,
static portal, which is firmly connected
to the floor. The portal also contains the
infeed- and outfeed system for the stacks
of carriers.
The operator easily rolls the stacks
on their carts in and out of the machine. Figure 4: With a stack height of 56 pieces, 118 small carriers of 90 big carriers can be stored on the rack per m
2
Figure 5: Top view of the carrier. The robot handles the carrier from the center. The kernel is the same for both sizes
The robot system will continue without
interruption during these operations.
The safety of the machine operator
remains guaranteed, with a safety
system that complies with the new
machine regulations and also to the
CE-PL safety norm.
The system described for automatic
bead-apex stacking and loading into a tire
building machine offers a comprehensive
logistic solution, starting at the production
of the BA and ending at the moment the
BA is built into a tire.
The robot takes over two tasks from
the operator in front of the tire building
machine, enabling a smaller workforce.
VMI offers several automatic monitoring
systems to perform the inspection, that
the operator used to perform.
Also, where operators can be distracted
by other tasks, the robot makes sure that
the BAs and green tires will be handled
every 40 seconds, resulting in a stable
and continuous output. tire
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