Chapter 8

DATA ACQUISITION
It is important for predictive maintenance programs using vibration analysis to have accurate, repeatable data. In addition to the type and quality of the transducer, three key parameters affect data quality: the point of measurement, orientation, and transducermounting techniques. In a predictive and reliability maintenance program, it is extremely important to keep good historical records of key parameters. How measurement point locations and orientation to the machines shaft were selected should be kept as part of the database. It is important that every measurement taken throughout the life of the maintenance program be acquired at exactly the same point and orientation. In addition, the compressive load, or downward force, applied to the transducer should be exactly the same for each measurement.

VIBRATION

DETECTORS: TRANSDUCERS CABLES AND

A variety of monitoring, trending, and analysis techniques are available that can and should be used as part of a total plant vibration monitoring program. Initially, such a program depends on the use of historical trends to detect incipient problems. As the program matures, however, other techniques such as frequency-domain signature analysis, time-domain analysis, and operating dynamics analysis are typically added. An analysis is only as good as the data used, therefore, the equipment used to collect the data are critical and determine the success or failure of a predictive maintenance or reliability improvement program. The accuracy and proper use and mounting of equipment determines whether or not valid data are collected. Specifically, three basic types of vibration transducers can be used for monitoring the mechanical condition of plant machinery: displacement probes, velocity transducers,

49

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Vibration Fundamentals

/ NONCONTACT

yLc

fi 7

SIGNAL

SENSOR

Figure 8.1 Displacement probe and signal conditioning system.

and accelerometers. Each has limitations and specific applications for which its use is appropriate.
Displacement Probes

Displacement, or eddy-current, probes are designed to measure the actual movement, or displacement, of a machines shaft relative to the probe. Data are normally recorded as peak-to-peak in mils, or thousandths of an inch. This value represents the maximum deflection or displacement from the true centerline of a machines shaft. Such a device must be rigidly mounted to a stationary structure to obtain accurate, repeatable data. Figure 8.1 shows an illustration of a displacement probe and signal conditioning system. Permanently mounted displacement probes provide the most accurate data on machines having a rotor weight that is low relative to the casing and support structure. Turbines, large compressors, and other types of plant equipment should have displacement transducers permanently mounted at key measurement locations. The useful frequency range for displacement probes is from 10 to 1000 Hz, or 600 to 60,000 rpm. Frequency components above or below this range are distorted and, therefore, unreliable for determining machine condition.

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Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram of velocity pickup: (1) pickup case, (2) wire out, (3) damper, (4) mass, (5)spring, (6) magnet.

The major limitation with displacement or proximity probes is cost. The typical cost for installing a single probe, including a power supply, signal conditioning, etc., averages $1000. If each machine to be evaluated requires 10 measurements, the cost per machine is about $10,000. Using displacement transducers for all plant machinery dramatically increases the initial cost of the program. Therefore, key locations are generally instrumented first and other measurement points are added later.
Velocity Transducers

Velocity transducers are electromechanical sensors designed to monitor casing, or relative, vibration. Unlike displacement probes, velocity transducers measure the rate of displacement rather than the distance of movement. Velocity is normally expressed in terms of inches per second (inhec) peak, which is perhaps the best method of expressing the energy caused by machine vibration. Figure 8.2 is a schematic diagram of a velocity measurement device. Like displacement probes, velocity transducers have an effective frequency range of about 10 to loo0 Hz.They should not be used to monitor frequencies above or below this range. The major limitation of velocity transducers is their sensitivity to mechanical and thermal damage. Normal use can cause a loss of calibration and, therefore, a strict recalibration program is required to prevent data errors. At a minimum, velocity transducers should be recalibrated every 6 months. Even with periodic recalibration, however, velocity transducers are prone to provide distorted data due to loss of calibration.

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Vibration Fundamentals

T
r 3
t

Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram o accelerometer: ( I ) base, (2) piezoelectric crystals, (3) f mass, (4)case.

Accelerometers

Acceleration is perhaps the best method of determining the force resulting from machine vibration. Accelerometers use piezoelectric crystals or films to convert mechanical energy into electrical signals and Figure 8.3 is a schematic of such a device. Data acquired with this type of transducer are relative acceleration expressed in terms of the gravitational constant, g,in incheshecondsecond. The effective range of general-purpose accelerometers is from about 1 to 10,000Hz. Ultrasonic accelerometers are available for frequencies up to 1 MHz. In general, vibration data above 1000 Hz (or 60,000 cpm) should be taken and analyzed in acceleration or gs.

A benefit of the use of accelerometers is that they do not require a calibration program to ensure accuracy. However, they are susceptible to thermal damage. If sufficient heat radiates into the piezoelectric crystal, it can be damaged or destroyed. However,

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53

MOVEMENT

Figure 8.4 Types of coiled cables.

thermal damage is rare because data acquisition time is relatively short (i.e., less than 30 sec) using temporary mounting techniques.
Cables

Most portable vibration data collectors use a coiled cable to connect to the transducer (see Figure 8.4). The cable, much like a telephone cord, provides a relatively compact length when relaxed, but will extend to reach distant measurement points. For general use, this type of cable is acceptable, but it cannot be used for all applications. The coiled cable is not acceptable for low-speed (i.e., less than 300 rpm) applications or where there is a strong electromagnetic field. Because of its natural tendency to return to its relaxed length, the coiled cable generates a low-level frequency that corresponds to the oscillation rate of the cable. In low-speed applications, this oscillation frequency can mask real vibration that is generated by the machine.
A strong electromagnetic field, such as that generated by large mill motors, accelerates cable oscillation. In these instances, the vibration generated by the cable will mask real machine vibration.

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Vibration Fundamentals

In applications where the coiled cable distorts or interferes with the accuracy of acquired data, a shielded coaxial cable should be used. Although these noncoiled cables can be more difficult to use in conjunction with a portable analyzer, they are absolutely essential for low-speed and electromagnetic field applications.

DATA MEASUREMENTS
Most vibration monitoring programs rely on data acquired from the machine housing or bearing caps. The only exceptions are applications that require direct measurement of actual shaft displacement to obtain an accurate picture of the machines dynamics. This section discusses the number and orientation of measurement points required to profile a machines vibration characteristics. The fact that both normal and abnormal machine dynamics tend to generate unbalanced forces in one or more directions increases the analysts ability to determine the root-cause of deviations in the machines operating condition. Because of this, measurements should be taken in both radial and axial orientations.
Radial Orientation

Radially oriented measurements permit the analyst to understand the relationship of vibration levels generated by machine components where the forces are perpendicular to the shafts centerline. For example, mechanical imbalance generates radial forces in all directions, but misalignment generally results in a radial force in a single direction that corresponds with the misaligned direction. The ability to determine the actual displacement direction of the machines shaft and other components greatly improves diagnostic accuracy. Two radial measurement points located 90 degrees apart are required at each bearing cap. The two points permit the analyst to calculate the actual direction and relative amplitude of any displacement that is present within the machine. Figure 8.5 illustrates a simple vector analysis where the vertical and horizontal radial readings acquired from the outboard bearing cap indicate a relative vertical vibration velocity of 0.5 inches per second peak (IPS-PK) and a horizontal vibration velocity of 0.3 IPS-PK. Using simple geometry, the amplitude of vibration velocity (0.583 IPSPK) in the actual direction of deflection can be calculated.
Axial Orientation

Axially oriented measurements are used to determine the lateral movement of a machines shaft or dynamic mass. These measurement points are oriented in-line or parallel with the shaft or direction of movement.

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0.5 IPS-PK
0.583 IPS-PK

0.3 IPS-PIS
Figure 8.5 Resultant shaft velocity vector based on radial vibration measurements.

At least one axial measurement is required for each shaft or dynamic movement. In the case of shafts with a combination of float and fixed bearings, readings should be taken from the fixed or stationary bearing to obtain the best data.

TRANSDUCER-MOUNTING TECHNIQUES
For accuracy of data, a direct mechanical link between the transducer and the machines casing or bearing cap is absolutely necessary. This makes the method used to mount the transducer crucial to obtaining accurate data. Slight deviations in this link will induce errors in the amplitude of vibration measurement and also may create false frequency components that have nothing to do with the machine.
Permanent Mounting

The best method of ensuring that the point of measurement, its orientation, and the compressive load are exactly the same each time is to permanently or hard mount the transducers, which is illustrated in Figure 8.6. This guarantees accuracy and repeatability of acquired data. However, it also increases the initial cost of the program. The average cost of installing a general-purpose accelerometer is about $300 per measurement point or $3000 for a typical machine-train.

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Vibration Fundamentals

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GLUE PAD FOR ACCELEROMETER

A
DOUBLE STUD MOUNT

STUD MOUNTED ACCELEROMETER

Figure 8.6 Permanent mounts provide best repeatability.

Quick-Disconnect Mounts

To eliminate the capital cost associated with permanently mounting transducers, a well-designed quick-disconnect mounting can be used instead. With this technique, a quick-disconnect stud having an average cost of less than $5 is permanently mounted at each measurement point. A mating sleeve built into the transducer is used to connect with the stud. A well-designed quick-disconnect mounting technique provides almost the same accuracy and repeatability as the permanent mounting technique, but at a much lower cost.
Magnets

For general-purpose use below 1000Hz, a transducer can be attached to a machine by a magnetic base. Even though the resonant frequency of the transducer/magnet assembly may distort the data, this technique can be used with some success. However, since the magnet can be placed anywhere on the machine, it is difficult to guarantee that the exact location and orientation are maintained with each measurement. Figure 8.7 shows common magnetic mounts for transducers.
Handheld Transducer

Another method used by some plants to acquire data is handheld transducers. This approach is not recommended if it is possible to use any other method. Handheld transducers do not provide the accuracy and repeatability required to gain maximum benefit from a predictive maintenance program. If this technique must be used, extreme care

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Four Pole

Disk
Contour

T w o Pole
Figure 8.7 Common magnetic mounts for transducers.

should be exercised to ensure that the same location, orientation, and compressive load are used for every measurement. Figure 8.8 illustrates a handheld device.

ACQUIRING DATA
Three factors must be considered when acquiring vibration data: settling time, data verification, and additional data that may be required.
Settling Time

All vibration transducers require a power source that is used to convert mechanical motion or force to an electronic signal. In microprocessor-based analyzers, this power source is usually internal to the analyzer. When displacement probes are used, an external power source must be provided.

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Vibration Fundamentals

Figure 8.8 Handheld transducers should be avoided when possible. (a) Orientation is not 90 degrees to shaft centerline. (b) Measurement-point location is not always consistent. (c) Compressive load varies and may inducefaulty readings.

When the power source is turned on, there is a momentary surge of power into the transducer. This surge distorts the vibration profile generated by the machine. Therefore, the data-acquisition sequence must include a time delay between powering up and acquiring data. The time delay will vary based on the specific transducer used and type of power source. Some vibration analyzers include a user-selected time delay that can automatically be downloaded as part of the measurement route. If this feature is included, the delay can be preprogrammed for the specific transducer that will be used to acquire data. No further adjustment is required until the transducer type is changed. In addition to the momentary surge created by energizing the power source, the mechanical action of placing the transducer on the machine creates a spike of energy that may distort the vibration profile. Therefore, the actual data-acquisition sequence should include a 10- to 20-second delay to permit decay of the spike created by mounting the transducer.

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Data Verification

59

A number of equipment problems can result in bad or distorted data. In addition to the surge and spike discussed in the preceding section, damaged cables, transducers, power supplies, and other equipment failures can cause serious problems. Therefore, it is essential to verify all data throughout the acquisition process.
Most of the microprocessor-based vibration analyzers include features that facilitate verification of acquired data. For example, many include a low-level alert that automatically alerts the technician wher, acquired vibration levels are below a preselected limit. If these limits are properly set, the alert should be sufficient to detect this form of bad data. Unfortunately, not all distortions of acquired data result in a low-level alert. Damaged or defective cables or transducers can result in a high level of low-frequency vibration. As a result, the low-level alert will not detect this form of bad data. However, the vibration signature will clearly display the abnormal profile that is associated with these problems. In most cases, a defective cable or transducer generates a signature that contains a skislope profile, which begins at the lowest visible frequency and drops rapidly to the noise floor of the signature. If this profile is generated by defective components, it will not contain any of the normal rotational frequencies generated by the machinetrain. With the exception of mechanical rub, defective cables and transducers are the only sources of this ski-slope profile. When mechanical rub is present, the ski slope will also contain the normal rotational frequencies generated by the machine-train. In some cases, it is necessary to turn off the auto-scale function in order to see the rotational frequencies, but they will be clearly evident. If no rotational components are present, the cable and transducer should be replaced.
Additional Data

Data obtained from a vibration analyzer are not the only things required to evaluate machine-train or system condition. Variables, such as load, have a direct effect on the vibration profile of machinery and must be considered. Therefore, additional data should be acquired to augment the vibration profiles. Most microprocessor-based vibration analyzers are capable of directly acquiring process variables and other inputs. The software and firmware provided with these systems generally support preprogrammed routes that include almost any direct or manual data input. These routes should include all data required to analyze effectively the operating condition of each machine-train and its process system.