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Flow of heat in a composite solid

This article has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text article. 1959 Br. J. Appl. Phys. 10 204 (http://iopscience.iop.org/0508-3443/10/5/303) View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for more

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Flow of heat in a composite d i d

By T. P.
NEWCOMB,

MSc., A.Inst.P., Ferodo Ltd., Chapel-en-le-Frith, Stockport, Cheshire

[Paper received 15 September, 19581

A solution is given to the problem of heat conduction in a composite solid consisting of two infinite slabs between parallel boundaries, when the interface is subjected to a thermal flux which decreases linearly with time, whilst at the two outer parallel boundaries there is no flow of heat. No assumptions are made concerning the way the heat is shared between the two bodies. This solution is applied to the problem of braking with uniform deceleration and possesses the advantage over previous solutions in that it can be used even when the brake applications are of long duration (over ten seconds). Typical curves showing the transient temperatures developed during braking are given.

During the process of braking two surfaces are in contact, one of which is rotating with respect to the other. If the deceleration of the body, the motion of which is to be controlled, is uniform, then the rate of heat generation H at the friction surfaces decreases linearly with time r, with H = Q(1 - ar) where a and Q are constants. At the working surface the heat developed is dissipated into each contacting body, and the determination of the transient temperatures reached at the interface or inside the contacting solids during a brake application reduces to considering the flow of heat in a composite solid. In the case of braking in an automobile, the curvature and dimensions of brakes and drums are sufficiently great that the errors, introduced by considering the concentric cylindrical portion of drum and lining to be developed into a flat rectangular plate (without edge effects) and the flow of heat to be uni-dimensional, are small enough to be neglected. In previous papers('-4) solutions have been presented to the problem of the linear flow of heat in an infinite slab, when the heat shared between drum and lining was considered to be the same as that when both contacting bodies were of infinite thickness. This assumption is not in serious error if the thermal constants of the brake lining material are sufficiently low (say with a thermal diffusivity of cm2/s) and if the brake application is of short duration (up to 10 s). However, some brake lining materials are of higher thermal conductivity and diffusivity, and surface temperature calculations applied to each slab, based on the above method of heat sharing, violate the condition that at the common interface the temperatures must be identical throughout a long brake application. In this paper an exact solution is given to the problem of the flow of heat in a composite body, consisting of two infinite slabs between parallel boundaries, in which the interface is subjected to a thermal flux which decreases linearly with time, whilst at the other boundaries there is no flow of heat. The method of analysis used to solve the problem is based on the Laplace transformation which readily enables the temperature distribution in brakes to be determined.
THE EQUATIONS A N D THEIR F O R M A L SOLUTION

The partial differential equations to be solved are

se,

ax2

1 JV, kl a t

=o,

-l<x<O,

t>O

(1)

subject to the boundary conditions. h1/3x = 0 at x = - 1; hc2/3x = 0 at x = d (3)

c1=v2

at x = O

t>O

K2(3c2/3x) = - Q2(l - at) at x = 0 K,(3cl/Jx) = Q,(l - ar) at x = 0 where Q=Pi+Q2 Introducing the Laplace transform defined as

fi = 1;xp (- pt)e(x, f)dt

the subsidiary equations become (d2fil/dx2) - q:fil where
=

0.

-I

(d262/dx2)- qifi,

0. d > x

<x <0 >0

4 = p l k 1 and :

si = pik2
=

These have to be solved with dV,/dx = 0 at x -I d.Z21dx = 0 at x = d

where Q = Q i +Q2 A solution of equation (8) which satisfies condition (11) is

(14) fi1 = [ A cosh q1(1 T X)]/COS~ qll Consider the linear flow of heat in a composite solid consisting of two parallel faced infinite slabs, where -I < x < 0 and a solution of equation (9) which satisfies equation (12) is represents one medium with physical properties K,, p,, cl, (15) 62 = [ E cosh q2(d - X)]/COS~ q2d k , , vl and 0 < x < d is the other medium with physical properties K2, p2, c?, kZ, c2. The quantities K, p, c, k , ?;, The unknowns A and E are found from equation (131, and with suffixes for whichever body is considered, refer respec- equations (14) and (15) then reduce to tively to the thermal conductivity, density, specific heat, thermal diffusivity and the temperature rise at any point x in the medium concerned. At the surface of contact x = 0 there exists a total thermal flux Q(l - at), whilst at the other boundaries there is no flow of heat perpendicular to the planes. Initially the two bodies are at zero temperature. BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 204

Flow of heat in a composite solid

media were infinite in thickness. In Fig. 1 curves are shown of the quantity Kl?j/Qkj at the friction surface, calculated from the exact solution for a 16 s brake application for brake linings with diffusivities of k2 = 3 . 3 x cm2/s (conventional material) and k 2 = 3 3 x lo-, cmZ/s (sintered

where
Applying the inversion theorem for the Laplace transin the usual way to equations (16) and (17), one obtains

36(u

+ uw)[U - 3uw(w + uu) - aw312

a

Ol

4
t(S)

12

16

A-.(t(, + y2) - 4)+ -(I - at)(u2 1

K1(u

+ uw)

Fig. 1. Values of Klc/Qki at the friction surface during 16 s brake application r, e = calcnlated from exact and previous solutions respectively for k2 = 3 . 3 x 10-3 cm%. Y , c = k2 = 3.3 x 10-2cmzjs. material), together with values of K,n/Qkj determined from the equation

a[u5

- lOu2w~(u uw)

+ 5WU(lY3 - uu3) $. uw5]

I
(19)

- 16at3/2

n=l

5 i3 erf c2nh]

derived previously by the author.(4) These curves show that the exact solution may give surface braking temperatures of 10 to 30% (depending on the material used) lower than that based on previous assumptions for long brake applications.
APPLICATIOP OF THEORY

(U

+ ow) cos p,,ucos Pmw

pit)

cos &U

- (w

cos pmy - UU)sin ,,U sin Pmw &,

x exp (&here * Ilk!

and

If a brake lining slides against a rotating drum with an

initial surface speed rcmls and produces a constant drum deceleration of fcm/s, then after t seconds of braking the instantaneous speed is (v -ft) cm/s. Hence the instantaneous energy H generated at the friction surface is

w = d/k$ z = ( I

x)/k$

JJ

(d

x)/ki

(20)

?pm, m = 1, 2 , 3 , , . are the roots of the equation

cos ptv sin ,$U + U sin pw cos pu = O (21) where A , = area of brake linings (cm2); F = tangential force and these roots are real and simple. n s if Q, a and the physical properties of the contacting acting at the friction surface (dyn); J = mechanical equivalent u, are known, the temperature rise at the interface of heat, taken as 4.18 x IO7 erg/cal; Q = Fr/A,J; and (where U = z and w = y ) and inside either body may be a = ,fh. Thus for any brake application the quantities Q and a determined from equations (1 8) and (1 9). These results may be compared with previous where the heat flow may be determined experimentally. In the brake of a typical C-, automobile d , = 0,625 cm, K , = 0.12 cal c m - ~ - ~ Is assumed to be shared at the friction surface as if both BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 10, MAY 1959 205

T.P. Newcomb kl
cal = 0.12cm2/s and d2 = 0.48 cm, K2 = 1.8 x cm- ssl Y - l , k 2 = 3 . 3 x los3 cm2/s. If the braking time T from an initial sliding surface speed of 1308 cm/s is 16 s the resulting value of Q is 105 cal cm- s-..
400x=O.OSd

300-

Experimental verification of equation (19) has been made by measuring transient temperatures inside the linings at depths corresponding to x = 0.05d and x = 0.33d when the physical quantities involved are as stated previously, Temperature measurements during each application of the brake were made by fine gauge copper-constantan thermo. couples, the outputs of which were fed into an amplifier and then to an Evershed and Vignoles recorder having a response of approximately i+ s. The agreement between temperatures determined experimentally and theoretically from equation (19) at various times during the braking application are illustrated graphically in Fig. 2.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Dr. R. T. Spurr of the Research Division of Ferodo Ltd. for assistance and criticism, and the directors of Ferodo Ltd. for permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES

I2

lb

t ($1 Fig. 2. Typical curves of transient temperature rise at different depths in a brake lining x = calculated values. o = mean experimental values. The range of values is also shown.

(1) ODIER,J., and LEUTARD, C.R. Acad. Sei. (Paris),244, P. p. 1141 (1957). (2) ODIER, and LEUTARD, C.R. Acad. Sci. (Paris),244, J., P. p. 1321 (1957). (3) BANNISTER, K. Engineering (London), 183, p. 304 F. (1957). (4) NEWCOMB,P. Brit. J. Appl. Plzys., 9, p. 370 (1958). T. (5) CARSLAW, S., and JAEGER,C. Conduction of Heat H. J. in Solids, 1st Ed., p. 244 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1947).

Deposition of unipolar charged aerosol partides by mutual repulsion

By W. W. FOSTER, A.Inst.P., Ph.D.,* Torry Research Station, Aberdeen B.Sc., [Paper received 10 November, 19581 A. simple theory of the deposition of unipolar charged aerosols by their mutual repulsion is developed. The application of this theory enables the average radius and the average charge of the particles to be determined from measurements of the mass of smoke deposited on metal surfaces and the charge given up by the particles. This new method offers a means of determining the rate of coagulation of unipolar charged aerosols. Experiments with wood smokes indicate that the simple theory of deposition is correct. The calculated average radius of the wood smoke particles examined compares favourably with that determined from measurement of the optical density and mass concentration of the smoke. The charge determined by the new method is consistent with that calculated on the basis of corona charging theory. k = Boltzmanns constant k o = dielectric constant of medium I = length of individual cylinders in which charged particles are deposited particles are deposited h = mobility of ions ,8 = (Fco/2~korid)(n2e2/a4) = rate of deposition of charged particles in a given mass concentration of aerosol at times f and t = 0 c, respectively length of cylinder i c= mass of particles deposited in charging unit in time 1 V C = constant of integration in V, = j Edi n = number of elementary charges on a particle d = density of each aerosol particle nd, nf = number of elementary charges acquired by ion e = elementary charge diffusion and field charging mechanisms respectivel! E = electric field strength No = number concentration of ions F = slip factor for correcting Stokes drag 7 = viscosity of medium G = root mean square velocity of ions P = rate of deposition of particles in cylinder of length,: i = current per unit length of corona electrode Pb = maSS Of charged particles deposited on b cylinders 1 = current due to deposition of charged particles inside cylinders time t P, = mass of particles entering charging unit in t h e r * Member of the staif of the Herring Industry Board. r, ro = radial positions in cylinder BRITISH JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 206 VOL. 10, MAY 1959
L I S T O F SYMBOLS

a = radius of spherical aerosol particle b = number of cylinders of length 1 in which charged