Mina Justa

2010 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. Economic Geology, v. 105, pp.
155185
Evolution of the Giant Marcona-Mina Justa Iron Oxide-Copper-Gold District, South-Central Peru
HUAYONG CHEN,1,,* ALAN H. CLARK,1 T. KURTIS KYSER,1 THOMAS D. ULLRICH,2 ROBERT BAXTER,3,** YUMING CHEN 4, AND TIMOTHY C. MOODY 5,
1 Department
of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6 Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T 1Z4 Resources Limited, Avenida Benavides N 1180, Miraflores, Lima 18, Per Hierro Per S.A.A, Avenida Repblica de Chile 262, Jess Maria, Lima 11, Per
2 Pacific
3 Chariot 4 Shougang 5 Rio
Tinto Mining and Exploration, Manco Capac 551, Miraflores, Lima 18, Per
Abstract
The Mesozoic iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) subprovince of littoral south-central Per, centered at latitude 1511' S, longitude 756' W, incorporates Marcona, the preeminent central Andean iron oxide deposit (1.9 Gt @ 55.4% Fe), and Mina Justa, one of the few major Andean IOCG deposits with economic copper grades (346.6 Mt @ 0.71% Cu). The emplacement of magnetite orebodies with uneconomic Cu grades (avg 0.12%) at Marcona was controlled by northeast-striking faults transecting an active andesitic-dacitic, shallow-marine Middle Jurassic (Aalenian to Oxfordian) arc. In contrast, hypogene Cu sulfide (~15 g/t Ag, 0.12 g/t Au) mineralization at Mina Justa was emplaced along reactivated listric-normal detachment faults during the mid-Cretaceous inversion of the contiguous, plate boundary-parallel, Aptian to Albian Caete basin, accompanied by the earliest, largely granodioritic-dioritic, stocks of the Coastal batholith. Alteration and mineralization assemblages, supported by 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of biotite, phlogopite, actinolite, cummingtonite, and K-feldspars, reveal a history of magmatic and hydrothermal processes extending episodically for at least 80 m.y., from ca. 177 to 95 Ma, wherein metal-rich mineralization events were preceded and separated by episodes of barren alteration. At Marcona, precursor, subocean-floor hydrothermal activity in the Aalenian (177 Ma) and Bajocian (171 Ma) generated, respectively, cummingtonite and phlogopite-magnetite assemblages through high-temperature Mg-Fe metasomatism of previously metamorphosed Lower Paleozoic Marcona Formation siliciclastic rocks and minor carbonate units underlying the nascent Ro Grande Formation arc. Subsequent areally widespread, albite-marialite alteration (Na-Cl metasomatism) largely predated but overlapped with the emplacement of an en echelon swarm of massive magnetite orebodies, in turn overprinted by subordinate magnetite-sulfide assemblages. Magnetite and weak Cu and Zn sulfide mineralization coincided with a 156 to 162 Ma episode of andesitic eruption and dacitic intrusion which terminated the growth of the arc, but was hosted largely by quartz-rich metaclastic rocks. From 162 to 159 Ma, iron oxide mineralization evolved from magnetite-biotitecalcic amphibole phlogopite fluorapatite to magnetite-phlogopite-calcic amphibole-pyrrhotite-pyrite assemblages. These were overprinted at 156 to 159 Ma by chalcopyrite-pyrite-calcite pyrrhotite sphalerite galena assemblages, locally resulting in grades of 0.45 percent Cu and 0.5 percent Zn. Hydrothermal activity was thereafter focused in the Mina Justa area, 3 to 4 km to the northeast of Marcona, where Middle Jurassic andesites experienced intense albite-actinolite alteration at ca. 157 Ma, i.e., contemporaneous with sulfide mineralization at Marcona, and magnetite-microcline alteration (K-Fe metasomatism) at ca. 142 Ma. Development of the Mina Justa Cu (-Ag) deposit proper, however, began much later, with, successively, actinolitization at ca. 109 Ma, the deposition of calcite and specular hematite, now entirely pseudomorphed by magnetite, and the metasomatic emplacement of bodies of barren, massive magnetite and pyrite at 101 to 104 Ma. Finally, at 95 to 99 Ma, chalcopyrite-bornite-digenite-chalcocite mineralization, with abundant calcite and hematite, was emplaced as two ~400-m-long, ~200-m-wide, gently dipping, tabular arrays of breccia and stockwork, cored by preexisting magnetite-pyrite lenses. Supergene oxidation generated a chrysocolla-atacamite-covellite blanket, hosting ~40 percent of the Cu reserve, prior to the eruption of a 9.13 0.25 Ma rhyodacitic ignimbrite flow. Although areally contiguous, the major magnetite and copper-rich centers of the Marcona district record independent metallogenic episodes widely separated in age. Further, whereas the Cu-poor magnetite mineralization at Marcona was integral to the terminal eruptions of the Middle Jurassic arc, representing a shallowmarine analog of the Pliocene El Laco magnetite deposits of northern Chile, the Mina Justa Cu sulfide
Corresponding author: e-mail, huayong.chen@utas.edu.au *Present address: CODES, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart, TAS, 7001, Australia. **Present address: Norsemont Mining, 507-700 West Pender St., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6C 1G8. Present address: Development & Research Center, China Geological Survey, 45 Fuwai Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, P.R. China, 100037. Present address: Rio Tinto plc, 6 St. Jamess Square, London, United Kingdom SW1Y 4LD.
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Submitted: May 1, 2009 Accepted: December 23, 2009
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CHEN ET AL.
orebodieslike the other economic, mid-Cretaceous, Cu-rich IOCG deposits of the central Andes, e.g., Candelaria-Punta del Cobre, Mantoverde, and Rul-Condestablewas the product of brines released during the inversion of back-arc volcanosedimentary basins. The latter environment recurred episodically in the Mesozoic Andes, as in comparable orogenic settings elsewhere, and extended histories of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization, incorporating numerous barren events, may therefore represent a salient feature of the IOCG deposit clan.
Introduction IRON OXIDE-COPPER-GOLD (IOCG) mineralization, first formally defined by Hitzman et al. (1992), has been a major exploration target since the discovery of the enormous Olympic Dam Cu-U-Au (-REE) deposit in 1975. Although most early identified IOCG systems, e.g., those of the Gawler craton of South Australia, the eastern Mount Isa inlier of Queensland, and the northern Fennoscandian Shield, are of Proterozoic age, the central Andean orogen, and especially the volcanoplutonic arcs of Jurassic and Cretaceous age exposed in the Cordillera de la Costa of northern Chile and central and southern Peru, are now recognized as hosting major IOCG mineralization (Fig. 1). The well-defined tectonomagmatic
environment in this region provides an ideal context for clarification of the genesis and metallogenic relationships of this problematic class of mineralization (Sillitoe, 2003). Marschik and Fontbot (2001), de Haller et al. (2006), and Sillitoe (2003) interpreted central Andean IOCG deposits on the basis of magmatic-hydrothermal models, although Sillitoe emphasized their distinction from the magnetite-rich porphyry Cu-Au group. In contrast, the incursion of exotic, in part evaporite-sourced, brines has been argued to be essential to economic Cu (-Au) mineralization, and the involvement of such nonmagmatic fluids has been confirmed in Ral-Condestable (Ripley and Ohmoto, 1977; de Haller and Fontbot, 2009), La Candelaria (Ullrich and Clark, 1999; Ullrich et al., 2001) and Mantoverde (Benavides et al., 2007). A radically
B
RaulCondestable
Eliana Monterrosas Marcona Pampa de Pongo
70 W
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12
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B
12
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Peru
Lima
50 km
Mina Justa Cobrepampa Acari
Rosa Maria
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Bolivia
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Pacific Pacific Ocean

Tocopilla Guanillo s Gatico Maguayan Mantos Blancos
Ocean
Eliana
Montecristo-Julia Santo Domingo Carrizalillo de Las Bombas Teresa de Colmo El Salado Cerro Negro San Domingo Sur Las Animas Mantoverde Galleguillo s Dulcinea Candelaria-Punta del Cobre Ojancos Nuevo Carrizal Alto Farola Amolanas Boqueron Chanar Quebradita El Algarrobo Los Colorados Productora Cristales Chilean iron belt La Higuera San Antonio Brilla dor Talcuna El Romeral Tamaya Panulcillo Los Mantos de Punitaqui
s
Chile
El Laco
14
Monterrosas
IOCG Deposits
Neogene to Quaternary Sediments Cenozoic Subaerial Volcanics Mesozoic Coastal Batholith Mesozoic Basinal Volcanics and Sediments Paleozoic San Nicolas Batholith
Cobrepampa Mina Justa Marcona Argentina Acari
30 oS
Argentina
El Espino
Large, Cu-rich IOCG Deposits (> 30 Mt; Cu grade> 0. 5% ) Iron Oxide Deposits Small IOCG Deposits Manto-type Deposits
El Soldado
N
200 km
Precambrian (includes some Paleozoic) Metamorphic Basement
San Juan Fig 2
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FIG. 1. (A) Locations of Cu-rich IOCG deposits, principal iron deposits, and manto-type Cu-Ag deposits in Peru and Chile (from Clark et al., 1990; Hawkes et al., 2002; Maksaev and Zentilli, 2002; Oyarzn et al., 2003; Sillitoe, 2003; and Benavides et al., 2007). (B) Simplified geologic map of the IOCG mineralization belt of south-central Peru (modified from Vidal et al., 1990), illustrating the extent of the mid-Cretaceous Caete intra-arc extensional basin (Atherton and Aguirre, 1992). 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
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Licona Santiago Valpara so Cerro Pelado Morritos
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EVOLUTION OF THE GIANT MARCONA-MINA JUSTA IOCG DISTRICT, PERU
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different perspective on the genesis of cental Andean IOCG mineralization is provided by the proposal that the majority of magnetite-dominated, so-called Kiruna-type (Geijer, 1931) deposits are the product of silica-poor, iron oxide-rich melts (e.g., Nystrm and Henrquez, 1994; Naslund et al., 2002; Henrquez et al., 2003), although such deposits have been recently divorced from Cu-rich IOCG systems (Williams et al., 2005). Our purpose herein is to contribute to these arguments through documentation of the Marcona district of littoral south-central Peru, which juxtaposes major IOCG-style ore deposits with widely variable proportions of iron oxides and copper sulfides. Marcona itself, representing much the largest-known concentration of high-grade magnetite ore in the central Andes, is centered in Nazca Province, Ica Department, at latitude 1512' S, longitude 757' W (Figs. 1, 2), 10 to 15 km from the Pacific coast and below 800 m a.s.l. Hosted by Paleozoic metasedimentary and Jurassic andesitic and sedimentary strata, and with present reserves of 1,551 Mt grading 55.4 percent Fe and 0.12 percent Cu (Shougang Hierro Per SA., Resource Estimate of the Marcona iron mine, unpub. report, 2003, in Chinese). The Mina Justa Cu-(Ag) prospect, 3 to 4 km northeast of the Marcona mine (Fig. 2) at latitude 1510' S, longitude 755" W and an altitude of 785 to 810 m a.s.l., has an indicated open pit resource of 346.6 Mt at an average grade of 0.71 percent Cu, 3.8 g/t Ag and ~ 0.03 g/t Au at a cutoff grade of 0.3 percent Cu, and an inferred resource of 127.9 Mt at 0.6 percent Cu (Mining Journal, Nov.
75 o,30 W 15 o,00 S
aL i nt Tre
24, 2006, p. 8). The district includes (Figs. 1, 2) several apparently less important Cu prospects as well as a second giant magnetite deposit, Pampa de Pongo, located 30 km southeast of Marcona-Mina Justa (Fig. 2; Hawkes et al., 2002) and with an inferred resource of 953 Mt grading 44 percent Fe (Cardero Resource Corp., news release, September 6, 2005). In addition, numerous magnetite and/or hematite-rich deposits, some rich in Cu and Au and including the small Acar Hierro magnetite vein and the formerly productive La Argentina Cu vein swarm, are hosted by dioritic-to-monzogranitic plutons of the mid-Cretaceous Coastal batholith in the Acar-Cobrepampa district (Fig. 2; Caldas, 1978; Injoque, 1985). This paper documents the geology and evolution of the Marcona magnetite and Mina Justa Cu (-Ag, Au) deposits. Complementary studies (Chen, 2008), to be reported elsewhere, assess the evidence for a melt origin for the Marcona magnetite orebodies and apply light stable isotope geochemistry and fluid inclusion microthermometry and chemistry to the identification of fluid sources. Regional and District Geological Setting The subdued coastal cordillera of south-central Per (Fig. 1B) exposes remnants of a succession of volcanoplutonic arcs which regionally range in age from latest Triassic to Holocene, evidence for a protracted but episodic history of suprasubduction zone magmatism along the convergent margin of the South American plate. However, the Andean magmatic record in the immediate Marcona area (Fig. 2) is dominated
75 o,00 74 o,30
Pampa de Poroma
5k
m
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ib r as
Rio Grande Canyon Pampa Las Galgas
aF au lt
ult Fa
Le ch u
Pampa Lagunal
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Pampa Lagunal Grande
Pacific
Mina Justa
Ocean B
Pampa Pajayuna
Marcona
15 o,15 S
Cobrepampa
Neogene to Quaternary gravels Cenozoic Formations (Pisco, Millo and Sencca) Coastal Batholith (80- < 109 Ma) Tunga Andesite/ Bella Union Volcanics (Albian to Upper Cretaceous) Mesozoic Formations (Rio Grande; Jahuay; Yauca; Copara) San Nicolas Batholith (425 4Ma) Marcona Formation Precambrian units (San Juan, Chiquerio Fm. and Arequipa Massif) Main Marcona Orebodies Faults Towns
San Nicolas
Pampa El Choclon
Argent ina
Hierro Acari
San Juan
Pampa Colorado
Pampa de Pongo
C A
Stratigraphic columns in figure 4
Active mines inactive mines (including prospects)
Pampa de Pongo
N
5 km
15 o,30 S
FIG. 2. Geology of the Marcona-Mina Justa district (modified from Caldas, 1978; Hawkes et al., 2002; and Chew et al., 2007). 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
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by Middle Jurassic volcanosedimentary and hypabyssal units and by mid-Cretaceous granitoid plutons. Stratigraphic relationships in the wider Marcona area, incorporating data from Caldas (1978), Vidal et al. (1990), Hawkes et al. (2002) and this study, are summarized in Figure 3.
Era Series
Quaternary 1, 2 MiocenePliocene Miocene Aptian to lower Albian Sencca Formation2 Millo 2 Formation Pisco Formation2
The discontinuous Peruvian IOCG belt (Fig. 1) is underlain by high-grade metamorphic rocks of the allochthonous Paleoproterozoic-to-Mesoproterozoic Arequipa Massif (Wasteneys et al., 1995; Loewy et al., 2004), comprising schists, gneisses, granites, and migmatites cut by basic and pegmatitic
Intr usive
Form at ion
Li th ology
Widespread marine terraces, aeolian sands; alluvium White to rose colored tuffs of dacitic to rhyolitic composition Loosely consolidated marine sandstones and conglomerates Thick conglomerates, yellow and reddish sandstones, shales, bentonite beds, fine-grained volcaniclastics
Cenozo ic
unconformity
Copara Formation (110-125 Ma) (Fossi l age range) (1000 m)

unconformity
Coastal Batholith Conglomerates, with mainly volcanic fragments, feldspathic (80- < 109 Ma) Tunga sandstones, violet graywackes, red shales, minor tuffs, lava Andesite and Bella Union complex flows and limestones with chert nodules
(Albian to Upper Cretaceous)
Shales, mudstones and sandstones
Neocomian
Yauca
(125-146 Ma) Formation (Fossi l age range) (1500 m)
Mesozo ic
Kimmeridgian to Tithonian
(146-155 Ma) (Fossi l age range)
Jahuay Formation (1000 m)
Agglomerates, brecciated lava flows, conglomerates and sandstones, quartzites, shales and lim estones. Sills with compositions similar to the lava flows
Porphyritic, partly pillo wed, K-rich, calc-alkaline andesites. Minor intercalations of reddish conglomerates, and brick-red, crosslaminated, volcanogenic sandstones
Callovian to Oxfordian
(155-164 Ma) (Fossi l, K-Ar ages)
Rio Grande Formation (4000 m)
Upper Rio Grande Formation
Mina Justa Cu orebodies
?
Dacite
unconformity
?
Red conglomerates, conglomeratic sandstones, and fine- to mediumgrained, red volcanogenic sandstones intercalatic with ignimbrites, foss ilif erous limestones, calcareous sandstones, and greenish tuffs (A meta-volcanic breccia base is present in the Marcona area)
Lower Rio Grande Formation
Aalenian to Bajocian
(166-179 Ma) (Fossi l age range)
(Cerritos Formation at Marcona)
Marcona Fe orebodies
unconformity
Lower Paleozoic
( > 425 Ma)
Marcona Formation (1500 m)

Marcona Fe orebodies
Conglomerates, dolomitic marbles, siltstones, sandstones, silicified limestones with chert laminations and quartz layers Hornblende and pyroxene metamorphism
San Nicolas Batholith (425 4Ma)
unconformity
Pre-Mesozoic
Neoproterozoic
San Juan Formation (3000 m)
Dolomitic marbles and chloritic schists Top: dolomitic marbles and chloritic schists Central: Pelitic rocks Base: calcareous schists, dolomitic marbles, calcareous marls and turbidites
unconformity
Neoproterozoic
Paleo-toMesoproterozoic 940, 1200 and 1820 Ma (metamorphism, U-Pb age)
1
Chiquerio 2 Formation
Tillites with dolomites near top
unconformity
Arequipa Massif
Gneisses, granites, migmatites and schists cut by multiplestage basic and pegmatitic dikes
- including Miocene and Pliocene sediments; - the estimated thicknesse s for the Quaternary, Sencca, Millo, Pisco and Chiquerio formations are: 350 m, 50 m, 3m, 500 m, and 100-800 m, respectively (not to scale in this column).
FIG. 3. Summarized stratigraphic column for the Marcona-Mina Justa district (modified after Caldas, 1978; Injoque, 1985; Hawkes et al., 2002, and Loewy et al., 2004). 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
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dikes. This basement complex is unconformably overlain by Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary strata and, more extensively, volcanic and sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic age (Fig. 2; Caldas, 1978; Hawkes et al., 2002). The ~1,500-mthick metasedimentary Marcona Formation, which hosts the majority of the economic magnetite orebodies at Marcona, is dominated by quartz-rich siltstones and sandstones, intercalated with minor quartz arenites and impure limestones and dolostones (Atchley, 1956; Injoque, 1985). It is intruded and metamorphosed by the post-kinematic, 425 4 Ma (Mukasa and Henry, 1990; Vidal et al., 1990), San Nicols granitoid batholith (Fig. 2), and is therefore at least Early Silurian in age. Where unaffected by hydrothermal alteration, metaclastic and metacarbonate members in the mine area widely exhibit, respectively, hornblende hornfels cordierite + biotite muscovite and tremolite quartz assemblages, but diopside and forsterite porphyroblasts record the local attainment of the pyroxene hornfels metamorphic facies. The Jurassic and Cretaceous strata of the wider Marcona area are subdivided (Figs. 2, 3), in decreasing age, into the
Ro Grande, Jahuay, Yauca, and Copara formations (Caldas, 1978). The ages of the three older formations are well established on faunal grounds, but those of the Copara Formation and the dominantly hypabyssal andesitic-dacitic Bella Unin complex which intrudes it, as well as the post-Yauca Formation hypabyssal Tunga Andesite, are poorly defined (Caldas, 1978). The Ro Grande Formation hosts the Mina Justa deposit and several orebodies of the Marcona mine (Injoque, 1985; Hawkes et al., 2002; Moody et al., 2003). The type section of this ~ 3,000- to 4,000-m-thick, generally northeaststriking and northwest-dipping (4560) succession is exposed in the Monte Grande area in the Can Ro Grande, northwest of Marcona (Fig. 2; Regg, 1956, 1961). It incorporates (Fig. 4) a 500-m lower member made up of a polymictic basal conglomerate overlain successively by mudstones, sandstones, limestones, rhyolitic to andesitic breccias, and rhyolitic to andesitic flows (Romeuf et al., 1993). This association is itself overlain by at least 2,000 m of gently folded red sandstones, shales, limestones, and brecciated andesitic flows with high K calc-alkaline-to-shoshonitic compositions
A
Canon Rio Grande
(Aguirre, 1988; Ruegg, 1956)
200 m
B
Marcona area
(modified from Injoque, 1985, and Atchley, 1956) Upper Rio Grande Formation
300 m
C
Pampa de Pongo
(Caldas, 1978)
Nott os cale in this column
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K-Ar age 164 Ma
Marcona Formation
Callovian-Oxfordian 151- 161 Ma
Aalenian-Bajocian 166-178 Ma
?
Arequipa Massif Limestone Magnetite orebodies
(Not to scale)
Marcona Formation Tuff Mina Justa Cu-orebodies Inferred boundary
Sandstone Andesite
Conglomerate Volcanic Breccias Inferred unconformity
FIG. 4. Schematic stratigraphic columns of the Ro Grande Formation in the Can Ro Grande, Marcona, and Pampa de Pongo areas (Atchley, 1956; Regg, 1956; Caldas, 1978; Injoque, 1985; Aguirre, 1988).
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CHEN ET AL.
(upper Ro Grande Formation in Fig. 4; Aguirre, 1988; Romeuf et al., 1993, 1995). The age of the basal units of the formation is established by Aalenian fauna (W.J. Arkell, in Regg, 1956; Roperch and Carlier, 1992), indicating that shallow-marine sedimentation was underway by 174.0+1.0 Ma 7.9 and after 178.0+1.0 Ma (Plfy et al., 2000). Roperch and Car1.5 lier (1992) report a quasi-plateau 40Ar/39Ar whole-rock age of 177.1 2.2 Ma for a basal basalt of the correlative Chala Formation 120 km to the southeast. Ro Grande Formation volcanism persisted into the Oxfordian, i.e., ca. 156.5+3.1 to 5.1 154.7+3.8 Ma, but was interrupted between ca. 166 and 164 3.3 Ma, which is recorded by the unconformity between lower and upper Ro Grande Formation. All of the formation records nondeformational, very low grade, zeolite or prehnitepumpellyite facies metamorphism (Aguirre and Offler, 1985; Aguirre, 1988). However, the accurate deposition ages for the host rocks of the Marcona magnetite deposit (i.e., Marcona Formation and lower Ro Grande Formation) and Mina Justa Cu deposit (i.e., upper Ro Grande Formation) are still unknown. Dike swarms, sills, and small plugs assigned to the Tunga Andesite intrude the Yauca Formation and older units (Caldas, 1978; Fig. 3). The most characteristic lithology is a coarsely porphyritic rock with large (1.5 cm) glomerocrysts of labradorite and sparse augite phenocrysts, informally termed ocite (Hawkes et al., 2002) by analogy with the broadly contemporaneous, strikingly porphyritic andesites of the Ocoa Formation in the Copiap area of northern Chile (Thomas, 1958). Essentially identical textures are, however, shown by several Ro Grande Formation andesitic flows in the Mina Justa area, a potential source of stratigraphic confusion. Ages for both Tunga andesite and upper Ro Grande Formation andesite are not well defined. Granitoid plutons of the Cretaceous Coastal batholith (Pitcher and Cobbing, 1985) intrude Neocomian and older strata in the Acar-Cobrepampa area (Fig. 2; DuninBorkowski, 1970; Caldas, 1978). U-Pb zircon age data are lacking for this part of the Arequipa segment of the batholith, but K-Ar (Cobbing, 1998) and Rb-Sr (Snchez, 1982) dates for, respectively, the Acar diorite and Cobrepampa monzonite-monzogranite suggest that granitoid intrusion locally began at ca. 109 4 Ma, shortly after emplacement of the Bella Unin complex. Small, undated, dioritic stocks, 7 to 8 km east-southeast and southeast of the Mina Justa prospect (Caldas, 1978), may be correlative with the larger intrusions to the east.
The Marcona Magnetite Deposit The Marcona mine now exploits eight open pits in a ~25 km2 area elongated from west-northwest to east-southeast (Fig. 2). A crudely en echelon array of 12 major magnetite orebodies (minas) and 55 smaller cuerpos is recognized (Fig. 5). However, the three zones exploited by the largest, 3km-long pit, i.e., Mina 2, Mina 3, and Mina 4, represent interconnected segments of a single orebody (Table 1). Approximately 60 percent of the reserve, making up the so-called E-grid orebodies, is hosted by the Marcona Formation, and the remainder, the N-13 type orebodies, by the lower members of the Ro Grande Formation (Figs. 5, 6). The immediate host rock for E-grid is dominantly metasandstone and siltstone with minor limestone. The hypogene grades (Table 1) of the larger orebodies hosted by the Paleozoic metasediments average 57 to 58 percent Fe, significantly exceeding those of 41 to 48 percent for the orebodies in Jurassic strata. Whereas the total sulfur content of the orebodies is consistent at ~3 wt percent, the copper content is more variable, averaging 0.06 to 0.18 percent, but attaining 0.4 wt percent in Mina 1 and 0.9 percent in the upper part of the easternmost, Mina 11, orebody (Fig. 5). Pyrrhotite occurs mainly in the lower, and chalcopyrite in the upper levels of the orebodies. As exemplified by the schematic cross section of the Mina 4 orebody (Fig. 7A), most orebodies at Marcona yield higher Cu grades as well as elevated total sulfide contents in their upper parts, although sulfides are locally enriched in the lower parts of some orebodies. Sphalerite and galena, normally subordinate to chalcopyrite, are abundant in the Mina 14 orebody. The clearly epigenetic orebodies are dominated by essentially massive magnetite, and most original contacts with both Paleozoic and Jurassic host rocks are abrupt, only locally complicated by disseminated mineralization, stockwork veining, or hydrothermal breccias. The mineralized area is intruded by a swarm of hypabyssal bodies (Fig. 7). These range from apparently syn- to clearly postmineralization and, in composition, from silicic to, rarely, ultramafic (hornblende pyroxenite: Atchley, 1956), but magmatic chemistry and mineralogy are almost everywhere disguised by alteration. Whereas andesine-phyric, in part ocitic, andesite dikes are largely postmineralization (Fig. 7A), dacitic porphyry bodies have complex, amoeboid relationships with massive magnetite orebodies, possibly evidence for the comingling of silicate and oxide melts (Chen, 2008).
TABLE 1. Selected Tonnage-Grade Data for Marcona Orebodies 1 Orebody Host rock Reserve (Mt)2 Fe grade (%)3 Cu grade (%)3 S content (%)3 Zn grade (%)3
1 From 2 2003 3Fe,
Minas 2-3-4 Marcona Fm. 399 58.5 0.17 3.55
Mina 5 Marcona Fm. 190 60.2 0.06 2.57
Mina 7 Marcona Fm. 18 57.3 0.06 3.10
Minas 9-10 Marcona Fm. 110 58.1 0.11 2.51
Mina 14 Marcona Fm. 110 57.0 0.08 2.97 0.5
Mina 11 Marcona Fm. 35 54.4 0.45 3.51
Mancha N-13 Ro Grande Fm. 224 41.9 0.04 2.86 -
The Resource Estimate of the Marcona Iron Mine, Shougang Hierro Per, unpub. report, 2003 (in Chinese)
Cu, Zn, and S grades of hypogene ore; Pb grade is not available
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Neogene to Quarternary sediments Cenozoic

Pisco Fm (sandstones, shales, bentonite beds) and Sencca Fm (rhyolitic to dacitic tuffs)
Copara Fm
(conglomerates, sandstones, some tuffs)
Coastal Batholith Tunga Andesites

Ocoite
1 Km
Yauca Fm
(Shales, mudstones, sandstones)
Rio Grande Fm
Mesozoic (J-K)
Jahuay Fm
(mixed calcareous sediments and volcanics)
Porphyritic andesite dikes
Sandstones/sillstones Fine and Hornblende Andesite Amygdaloidal Andesite Tuff San Nicolas granitoids Dacite
Lower Paleozoic Precambrian
Marcona Fm (metasediments) Arequipa Massif (Gneisses, K-rich Granite, migmatites)
g Tun
Figure 10
i Tre a nt
au aF lt
Lib s ra u Fa lt
A
Mina 20
Mina Justa
15 o,10 S
M ina
5
a8 Min Figure 7A
Marcona
Mina 9- 10
2-
Mina 1
in a (M
4) 3-
in
Mi
1 na
Mina 11
Figure 7B Figure 6
FIG. 5. Geology of the area surrounding the Marcona deposit and Mina Justa prospect. Line A-A' illustrates the cross section (see Fig. 6) through the Marcona mine (modified from Rio Tinto, Marcona JV exploration report, June 2003). Insert shows area of Figure 10.
Three principal fault systems were documented in the Marcona mine by Atchley (1956) and Hawkes et al. (2002), but new observations show that at least four are represented. The oldest, Pista normal faults, strike 295 and dip 60 to the north. Together with the coeval or younger Repeticin faults, they are inferred to record east-southeast-west-northwest contraction during the Jurassic, perhaps linked to sinistral shear along the regionally important, northwest-trending, Treinta Libras fault zone northeast of Marcona (Figs. 2, 5). Emplacement of the majority of the Marcona magnetite orebodies was controlled by the multiple-stage Repeticon fault system (Fig. 7), striking N 45 E and dipping 30 to 60 NW. The Repeticon fault system may include a series of faults that formed before mineralization and persisted after magnetite emplacement, and varied from reverse movement in the early stages to normal movement in later stages. The younger faults which controlled the Cu mineralization at Mina Justa, herein termed
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Mina Justa faults, have strike directions similar to those of the Repeticin faults at Marcona, but they dip shallowly southeast rather than northwest, and show normal displacement. Recognized herein in the Marcona mine, where they segment the orebodies (Fig. 7), these faults may record a change to dextral transtension on the Treinta Libras fault. The youngest, Huaca, normal faults strike 335 and dip 60 to the east. They are postmineralization at both Marcona and Mina Justa, but are commonly followed by porphyritic andesitic (ocite) dikes. Paragenetic relationships Numerous stages of hydrothermal alteration and hypogene mineralization, M-I through M-VII, are recognized, largely on the basis of megascopic and microscopic textural relationships and mineral assemblages (Fig. 8). Representative electron microprobe analyses of alteration minerals are recorded in Table 2, complementing the data of Injoque (1985).
161
162
CHEN ET AL.
20 Mina ype) t (N -13
3 Mina
id (E-g r
)
5 Mina
1000 m
FIG. 6. Schematic cross section of Marcona mine area (A-A' in Fig. 5). Ornaments as in Figure 5. The magnetite orebodies are extensively dislocated by faults (modified from Hawkes et al., 2002).
Elevation(m) 650
0. 10
0. 20
0. 30
0. 00
SE
Neogene Sediments
NW
DDM4-7
A
Mina 4
Cu(% )
in the hypogene ore
DDM4-6
600 550 500 450 400
Legend
Marcona Formation metasediments porphyritic andesite dykes Diabase dikes cutting orebodies Hypogene magnetite orebody Transitional ore
DDM4-6
350
Repeticion Faults Mina Justa Fault
300
Huaca Fault
Pit outline (2004 )

250
Leached ore
Sampled drillc ores
SE
NW
Elevation(m) 750
Mina 1
700
Legend
Marcona Formation metasediments
porphyritic andesite dykes
650
Dacite magnetite orebody
Pit outline (2004)
Repeticion Fault (early) Repeticion Fault (late) Mina Justa Fault
FIG. 7. (A) Cross section of the Mina 4 orebody, Marcona. Copper grade distribution on the right is for >50 percent Fe orebody. Porphyritic andesite and basaltic dikes are common. The main and subsidiary orebodies are controlled by northeast-striking and northwest-dipping Repeticin faults, and displaced by later Mina Justa and Huaca system faults. (B) Cross section of the Mina 1 orebody, Marcona. Two sets of Repeticin faults are recognized: postmineralization and displacing the orebody, in turn cut by Mina Justa system faults; and controlling the emplacement of the orebody and dacite porphyry intrusions. Porphyritic andesite dikes are displaced by late Repeticin and Huaca faults. Locations of sections are shown in Figure 5 (modified after Shougang Hierro Per cross sections of Mina 4 and Mina 1, 2004). 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
600
162

Early Mg-silicate alteration Stage M-I-A Stage M-I-B
163
Chlorite-talc-serpentine alteration
Minerals
Cummingtonite
Albite -scapolite alteration Stage M-II
Magnetite stage Stage M-III
Magnetite-sulfide stage Stage M-IV
Polymetallic sulfide mineralization Stage M-V
Stage M-VI
Late veins Stage M-VI I
Phlogopite Magnetite Albite* Scapolite* K-feldspar * Biotite Quartz Diopside* Actinolite Tr emolite Pyrite Pyrrhotite Chalcopyrite Sphalerite Calcite Apatite Prehnite Sericite Greenalite Chlorite Talc Serpentine Anhydrite Tourmaline Hematite Rhodochrosite
Abundant Local Trace
? ?
* only in host rocks
FIG. 8. Alteration and mineralization paragenesis of the Marcona magnetite deposit.
Stage M-IEarly Mg-silicate alteration: Felted aggregates of fine-grained cummingtonite (Table 2; Fig. 9A, B) occur in feldspathic metasiltstones of the Marcona Formation, originally ~300 m vertically below the base of the Ro Grande Formation, and are assigned to paragenetic stage M-IA (Fig. 8). The cummingtonite is locally replaced by biotite and magnetite (Fig. 9B), and has an Mg/Mg + Fe ratio of 0.74 (Table 2), exceeding those of most metamorphic and all igneous examples (Deer et al., 1997). Cummingtonite alteration, megascopically indistinguishable from the more widespread actinolitic facies and not previously recorded, is apparently restricted to the upper Marcona Formation. Coarse-grained phlogopite, in part intergrown with magnetite but also replaced by magnetite and pyrite (Fig. 9C), talc and chlorite, also developed at an early stage in the alteration envelopes of Mina 5 and other orebodies hosted by the Marcona Formation. This magnesian mica alteration is assigned to stage M-IB (Fig. 8). Stage M-IIalbite-scapolite alteration: At Marcona, Na-Cl metasomatism widely generated albite and subordinate Narich scapolite, particularly in Marcona Formation siliciclastic rocks and lower Ro Grande Formation sedimentary units and andesites. Patches of coarse, white albite with clusters of bladed white scapolite are widely developed along the foliation of metaclastic host rocks, in places adjacent to bodies of massive magnetite (Fig. 9D). In such zones, scapolite is restricted to within 1 to 1.5 m of the magnetite bodies. Albite
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and scapolite do not occur within the latter, however, and this stage M-II alteration is inferred to have largely predated magnetite mineralization. Nonetheless, replacive pink albite mantles plagioclase phenocrysts both in andesites and in the dacite porphyries which are interpreted as contemporaneous with stage M-III magnetite mineralization (Fig. 8). Rock staining and X-ray study are commonly required to distinguish this pink albite alteration from the widespread Kfeldspathization. Albitization everywhere predated Kfeldspar development which was, in turn, overprinted by actinolite-sulfide alteration (Fig. 9E). Na-rich scapolite locally replaced original feldspars in andesite in contact with the orebodies and, with a composition of meionite2938 and 2.8 to 3.3 wt percent Cl, has been identified in the lower Ro Grande Formation north of the Marcona mine (Injoque, 1985), where it was subsequently replaced by amphibole and magnetite. Stages M-III and M-IVMain magnetite and magnetitesulfide mineralization: Magnetite in the massive orebodies and local stockwork breccia mineralization is associated with varying proportions of calcic amphibole, phlogopite, biotite, K-feldspar, apatite, calcite, diopside, and sulfides. The major mineral associations in the main magnetite orebodies are magnetite-actinolite (or tremolite) phlogopite and magnetite-biotite ( actinolite), both assigned to a sulfide-free stage M-III, and magnetite-actinolite (or tremolite)-sulfides ( apatite calcite), and magnetite-phlogopite-sulfides (
163
TABLE 2. Representative Electron Microprobe Data for Alteration Minerals, Marcona Iron Deposit
164
Mineral M-V M-V M-V M-V M-V M-V M-VI M-VI M-VI
cum
cum
gre
bt
bt
trm
trem
act
phl
phl
phl
phl
phl
phl
phl
act
trem
trem
trem
trem
trem
chl
chl
tlc
Stage
M-I
M-I
M-III M-III M-III M-III M-III M-III M-III M-IV M-IV M-IV M-IV M-IV
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 40.19 1.44 12.32 15.71 0.06 16.07 0 0.04 9.43 0.98 0.73 96.97 58.54 0 0.56 1.44 0.01 23.51 13.66 0.2 0.12 0 0.47 98.5 58.7 0 0.48 2.25 0.08 23.01 13.34 0.12 0.13 0.02 0.4 98.52 55.39 0.06 2.43 7.26 0.04 19.08 13.44 0.32 0.16 0.05 0.37 98.6 44.73 0.03 10.99 2.08 0 27.25 0.01 0.1 9.65 0.14 1.97 96.94 43.51 45.41 44.89 44.51 43.35 41.91 55.61 58.63 57.8 59.77 58.19 57.98 36.74 37.59 62.11 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.32 0.69 1.62 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.05 0 0 0.03 0 12.62 11.2 10.88 11.43 12.73 13.09 0.22 0.33 1.17 0.29 0.73 0.37 10.23 8.83 0.37 2.24 2.45 1.91 2.45 2.29 6.58 14.69 3.83 3.6 1.8 2.83 2.55 5.17 5.72 1.11 0 0 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.02 26.42 27.17 27.44 26.81 26.15 22.03 14.42 22.15 22.33 23.49 22.92 21.59 33.63 33.52 29.68 0 0 0 0 0 0 12.81 13.27 13.9 13.73 12.68 13.45 0.11 0.1 0.04 0.18 0.11 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.25 0.09 0.22 0.15 0.05 0.13 0.13 10.24 9.79 9.79 10.11 9.88 9.74 0.03 0.09 0.17 0.06 0.1 0.11 0.14 0.05 0.1 0.18 0.14 0.16 0.12 0.12 0.3 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.01 1.55 1.77 1.8 1.64 1.59 1.14 0.31 0.35 0.54 0.53 0.58 0.58 0.66 0.78 0.71 96.97 98.1 97.05 97.44 96.87 95.67 98.32 98.86 99.89 99.89 98.38 96.85 86.85 86.82 94.28 CHEN ET AL. 5.91 2.09 0.12 0.14 2.14 0.00 3.39 0.00 0.02 1.81 0.27 0.25 0.36 5.96 2.04 0.11 0.16 1.95 0.01 3.55 0.00 0.01 1.78 0.25 0.34 0.38 7.96 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.16 0.00 4.76 1.99 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.20 0.97 7.99 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.26 0.01 4.67 1.95 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.17 0.95 7.74 0.26 0.14 0.01 0.85 0.01 3.98 2.01 0.09 0.03 0.01 0.16 0.82 6.24 1.76 0.05 0.00 0.24 0.00 5.67 0.00 0.03 1.72 0.03 0.87 0.04 6.08 1.92 0.16 0.00 0.26 0.00 5.50 0.00 0.05 1.82 0.04 0.68 0.05 6.25 1.75 0.07 0.01 0.28 0.00 5.58 0.00 0.03 1.72 0.03 0.77 0.05 6.25 1.75 0.03 0.01 0.22 0.01 5.69 0.00 0.03 1.74 0.04 0.79 0.04 6.19 1.81 0.06 0.03 0.29 0.00 5.55 0.00 0.01 1.79 0.03 0.72 0.05 6.05 1.95 0.15 0.07 0.27 0.00 5.44 0.00 0.02 1.76 0.03 0.70 0.05 5.97 2.03 0.17 0.17 0.78 0.01 4.68 0.00 0.02 1.77 0.07 0.51 14.3 8.03 0.00 0.09 0.00 1.77 0.01 3.10 1.98 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.14 0.64 8.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.44 0.01 4.51 1.94 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.15 0.91 7.85 0.15 0.04 0.00 0.41 0.01 4.52 2.02 0.07 0.03 0.01 0.23 0.92 8.01 0.00 0.07 0.01 0.20 0.01 4.69 1.97 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.22 0.96 7.96 0.04 0.08 0.01 0.32 0.01 4.67 1.86 0.06 0.02 0.00 0.25 0.94 8.05 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.30 0.01 4.47 2.00 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.25 0.94 7.03 0.97 1.33 0.00 0.83 0.01 9.59 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.40 0.1 7.21 0.79 1.21 0.00 0.92 0.01 9.59 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.47 0.1 8.02 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.12 0.00 5.72 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.29
Sample no.
MA5-9 MA5-9 MA5-9 MA5-9 MA5-9 MA3-18 MA7-23 DDM3- MA3-18 MA3-18 MA3-19 MA3-19 MA3-19 MA3-19 MA3-19 DDM5 DDM5 DDM3 DDM3 DDM5 MA91 MA3-19 MA3-19 MA3-18 II-2 I-1 II-3 II-1 I-2 II-2 II-2 3-1-II II-1 I-1 I-1 I-2 II-2 II-3 II-1 -4-2-2 -4-2-1 -3-8 -3-1-I -4-3 -1 I-4 I-4 I-2
SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Cl F Total
57.68 57.64 35.72 0.01 0 0.01 0.83 0.8 0.09 13.04 14.01 49.98 0 0.05 0.56 21.12 20.91 2.84 0.69 0.13 0.03 0.13 0.13 0.01 0.09 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.92 0.35 0.28 0.01 93.95 94.09 90.19
39.3 1.23 12.46 17.03 0.02 15.11 0 0.07 9.45 1.06 0.53 96.27
4.20
164
Si Al 1 Al 2 Ti Fe Mn Mg Ca Na K Cl F R**
8.28 0.00 0.14 0.00 1.57 0.00 4.52 0.11 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.16 0.74
8.29 0.00 0.14 0.00 1.68 0.01 4.48 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.13 0.73
0.01 0.00 4.92 0.06 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00
Notes: * = total iron; number of ions calculated on the basis of F, Cl, and 23 O for cummingtonite (cum), tremolite (trem) and actinolite (act); 22 O for biotite (bt) and phlogopite (phl); 28 O for chlorite (chl), 22 O for talc (tlc), and 14 O for greenalite; R**: Mg/Mg + Fe ratio for amphiboles; Fe/Fe + Mg for micas and chlorites 1 Altetrahedral 2 Aloctahedral
FIG. 9. Marcona alteration and mineralization stages. (A) Cummingtonite (stage M-IA), partially altered to greenalite, occurs interstitially to coarse-grained biotite and magnetite (stage M-III) (#MA5-9, Mina 5 open pit, 670 m, main orebody; plane-polarized transmitted light). (B) Electron backscatter image illustrating the replacement of cummingtonite (darker) by fine-grained stage M-III biotite. (C) Stage M-IB phlogopite and magnetite (Mt-1) replaced by pyrite and magnetite (Mt-2). Pyrite was emplaced along the cleavage of early phlogopite (#MA5-2, Mina 5 open pit, 670 m, main orebody; planepolarized reflected light). (D) Albitization of Marcona Formation metasediments. Coarse white albite, locally with pockets of bladed scapolite, is concentrated along the foliation (Mina 2 open pit, 700 m, south wall). (E) Stage M-II albitized dacite porphyry (white) cut by stage M-III K-feldspar (microcline; pink-red) veins, in turn reopened by stage M-V actinolite (+ sulfide, dark-green). The major sulfide is pyrite (#MA3-24, Mina 3 open pit, 600 m, ~ 30 m from the main magnetite orebody). (F) Stage M-III tremolite (with actinolite) occurs interstitially to subhedral magnetite. Chloritization of amphibole is common. (#MA3-22, Mina 3 open pit, 600 m, combined reflected and transmitted light). (G) Stage M-IV magnetite, pyrite, tremolite and phlogopite. The smooth contacts suggest contemporaneous formation (#MA2-9, Mina 2 open pit, 600 m, orebody, combined reflected and transmitted light). (H) Coarse-grained stage M-III phlogopite with interstitial magnetite and apatite. Chlorite and minor talc replace phlogopite along cleavages (#MA3-18, Mina 3 open pit, 600 m, orebody, transmitted light, crossed nicols). (I) Electron backscattered image showing the local replacement of stage M-III biotite (paler, massive aggregates and veins) by stage M-IV phlogopite (#MA3-19, Mina 3 open pit, 600 m). (J) Alteration at the contact between magnetite (Mt) orebody and dacite, zoned outward from biotitization to Kfeldspathization and albitization (all with or without minor magnetite) (Mina 3 open pit, east end of south wall, 620 m). (K) Actinolitetremolite-sulfide veins cut stage M-III massive magnetite-calcic amphibole aggregate. The major sulfides are chalcopyrite and pyrite. Stage M-V actinolite-tremolite is commonly coarse-grained. Magnetite occurs as traces in stage M-V veins (#DDM5-4-2, drill core DDM5-4, 210 m, main Mina 5 orebody). (L) Stage M-V pyrite, chalcopyrite, and calcite occur as aggregates superimposed on stage M-III magnetite (#MA5-3, Mina 5 open pit, 670 m, orebody). (M) Finegrained talc replaces stage M-IV phlogopite (#MA3-11, Mina 3 open pit, 580 m, adjacent to a magnetite orebody; transmitted light, crossed nicols). (N) Late magnetite veins (Mt-2) cut massive magnetite (Mt-I) and late tremolite. Magnetite in veins is commonly fine grained and locally associated with calcite (#DDM3-3-3, drill core DDM3-3, 343 m, Mina 3 orebody). (O) Late quartz vein (with erratic calcite and Mn oxides) cuts massive magnetite-amphibole-sulfide assemblage. A hematite vein cuts both (#MA3-35, Mina 3 open pit, 580 m, south wall).
165
B
Cum
Cum
B
Cum
C
Bt
Phl
Py
Gre
Mt
Py
Bt
Cum
Mt
Phl
Mt
Mt-1
Cum
Mt
Bt
Bt
150 m
Marcona Formation
Mt-2
150 m
E
Ab (Stage M-II)
F
Chl
Amph
Mt
Albite
Magnetite orebody
Albite
Kfs (Stage M-III)
Mt
1 m
Amph
Act-Sulfide veins (Stage M- V)
150 m
Mt
Amph
H
Chl
Chl
I
Phl
Ap
Bt
Phl
Phl
Py
Mt
Py
Mt
Phl
Phl
Mt
150 m
150 m
Bt
Mt
Bt
Mt
L
Cal
Mt
Massi ve Mt-Amph
Cp
Py
Cal
Kfs+ Ab alterati on
Cp-Py-Amph veins
Mt
1 cm 0. 5 cm
M
Cp
Tlc
Phl Phl
Tlc
N
Mt
Late tremolit e
O
Hm vein
Late tremolite
Tlc
Mt(2) veins
Qtz vein
Mt - Amph Sulfide - Cal
Tlc
Phl
Cal
150 m
Mt(1)
0. 5 cm
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CHEN ET AL.
actinolite or tremolite apatite calcite), assigned to stage M-IV. In both stages, magnetite forms euhedral to subhedral, 0.3 to 5 mm grains and massive aggregates, commonly intergrown (Fig. 9F) with fine-grained (0.10.5 mm), light-green tremolite or dark-green actinolite (Table 2; the classification of Leake et al., 1997). However, these amphiboles rarely coexist. The major stage M-IV sulfides are pyrite, chalcopyrite, and both hexagonal and monoclinic pyrrhotite, occurring largely as subhedral to anhedral crystals interstitial to magnetite, calcic amphibole, and phlogopite (Fig. 9G), but locally showing microscopic replacement textures. Although no unambiguous replacement of pyrrhotite by pyrite and chalcopyrite was observed, the common association of pyrrhotite and magnetite without other sulfides, especially in the lower parts of the orebodies, and the absence of pyrrhotite in late sulfide veins suggest that it largely formed prior to pyrite and chalcopyrite. Red-brown stage M-III biotite (Ann3638) commonly occurs as coarse flakes in the main orebodies and their envelopes. Phlogopite, locally occurring in stage M-III but more abundant in stage M-IV assemblages, has a composition of Ann45 (Table 2) and is widely replaced by chlorite and talc (Fig. 9H). The locally developed stage M-IV ferroan phlogopite (Ann14) may record the alteration of stage-III biotite. Replacement of both massive and vein biotite by phlogopite in Marcona Formation metasediments is also observed in electron backscatter images (Fig. 9I). Accessory minerals in the magnetite orebodies include fine-grained stage M-III fluorapatite (Fig. 9H) and stage M-IV calcite, both widely coexisting with magnetite and/or sulfides. Stage M-III K-feldspar alteration is dominant in dacite and fine-grained andesite, generally has the orthoclase structure, and commonly occurs within an outer zone to biotitization (Fig. 9J). Metasomatic magnetite, associated with secondary K-feldspar, is only locally observed in host rocks. Although biotite, phlogopite and amphibole are also common skarn-type alteration minerals, the immediate metasiltstone host rock for major magnetite orebodies and the absence of extensive hydrothermal magnetite in the alteration envelope indicate a carbonate-replacement skarnization (Injoque, 1985) is unlikely for the Marcona main magnetite formation. Stage M-VPolymetallic sulfide mineralization: The major sulfides in stage M-V are again pyrite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite. Sulfide-rich veins, commonly with calcic amphiboles, occur in the upper parts of the orebodies and cut massive stage M-III and M-IV magnetite-amphibole associations (Fig. 9K). However, the relationships between the sulfides of stages M-IV and M-V are rarely clear. Stage V sulfides and coexisting minerals widely occur as aggregates replacing stage M-III magnetite and amphibole. The characteristic assemblages include chalcopyrite-pyrite-calcic amphibole ( pyrrhotite) and less abundant, chalcopyrite-pyrite-calcite (Fig. 9L). The chalcopyrite-pyrite-calcic amphibole-calcite assemblage also occurs locally. Stage M-V sulfides are generally euhedral to subhedral and coarse grained, and commonly have planar contacts with amphibole and calcite, which may indicate broadly coeval precipitation. Pyrrhotite mainly occurs as aggregates replacing stage M-III or M-IV magnetiteamphibole and is subordinate to chalcopyrite and pyrite in sulfide veins. Accessory stage M-V sulfides include sphalerite, abundant in the Mina 14 orebody and commonly associated
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
with pyrite and chalcopyrite. Calcic amphibole formed extensively in stage M-V as tremolite and actinolite (Table 2), both coexisting with sulfides. Tremolite, without associated metallic minerals, also developed late in stage M-V, forming veins cutting massive magnetite orebodies. Hydrothermal breccias, in which coarse-grained, late-stage M-V tremolite cements magnetite-sulfide clasts, are widespread in the Cu-poor Mina 5 and Mina 7 orebodies, but are only locally developed elsewhere. Tremolite which formed late in stage M-V has a lower iron content than that associated with sulfides (Table 2). Stage M-VIChlorite-talc-serpentine alteration: Talc commonly occurs as fine-grained aggregates and replaces or cuts calcite, locally also replacing stage M-IV phlogopite (Fig. 9M). Lizardite and, locally, chrysotile also replace stage M-V actinolite and tremolite, and talc and serpentine replace coarse-grained stage M-V apatite. Serpentine veins commonly cut magnetite and sulfides in the cores of the orebodies. Whereas the chlorite-talc -serpentine assemblage records the retrograde alteration of phlogopite, actinolite and tremolite, the replacement of calcite and calcic amphiboles by talc and serpentine is evidence for Mg metasomatism following the main stage M-V sulfide precipitation. Stage M-VIILate veins: Late-stage hydrothermal veins are abundant at Marcona, but their mutual age relationships are ambiguous. Fine-grained subhedral magnetite and sulfides form narrow veins cutting both late-stage M-V tremolite and stage M-III magnetite (Fig. 9N). Rare chalcopyrite veins lacking gangue minerals cut late magnetite veins. Late magnetite is widely weathered to powdery hematite, but some hematite ( gypsum) veins which cut the main magnetite orebodies and late quartz veins (Fig. 9O) are interpreted as hypogene. The major sulfides in hematite veins are pyrite and chalcopyrite. Although the main mineralization stages at Marcona are almost free of quartz, barren quartz calcite veins cut magnetite orebodies and host-rock alteration zones (Fig. 9O). Rhodochrosite locally occurs in these veins. Calcite veins up to 5 cm thick cut the magnetite orebodies and reopen serpentine veins. Tourmaline-quartz-pyrite veins locally cut Marcona Formation metasediments. In the Mina 11 orebody, anhydrite veins, commonly replaced by gypsum and bassanite, cut all previous stages. Locally, anhydrite with abundant pyrite and minor chalcopyrite forms the matrix of hydrothermal breccias. Supergene alteration: Most magnetite orebodies at Marcona were mantled by 10- to 40-m-thick supergene oxidation profiles, comprising lower, 4 to 6 m horizons of sulfate-rich transitional ore (Fig. 7A), in which martitized magnetite is intergrown with jarosite, botyrogen, amarantite and parabutlerite, and surficial leached, martite-dominated zones. The supergene profiles are eroded by a regionally extensive pediment overlain by a 9.13 0.25 (2) Ma rhyodacitic ash-flow tuff (Quang et al., 2001). The Mina Justa Cu (-Ag) Deposit The Mina Justa Cu oxide and sulfide orebodies are hosted entirely by the mid-late Jurassic upper Ro Grande Formation (Fig. 10). This unit dips at 40 to 60 to the northwest and is dominated by porphyritic andesite flows and medium to finegrained andesitic volcaniclastic rocks with minor horizons of sandstone, siltstone and limestone. Callovian to Oxfordian
166
167
Main orebody
Upper orebody
B C
Neogene to Quaternary Post-mineraliz ation ocoite Amygdaloidal Andesite Massive Magnetite bodies with minor Cu-oxides Alteration (Ab+ Kfs+ Act) with Cu-oxide Tuff
Fine-grained andestie
Sandy volcaniclastics (sandstone/siltstones) Faults
N
50 m
B Cross Sections
FIG. 10. Geologic map of Mina Justa Cu deposit, hosted by the upper Ro Grande Formation. B-B' and C-C' show locations of the Figure 11 cross sections (modified from Rio Tinto 1: 10,000 mapping of Mina Justa prospect, February 2003, unpub. report). Ab = albite, Act = actinolite, Kfs = K-feldspar.
fauna have been identified in inferred equivalent strata of the upper Ro Grande Formation in the Pampa de Pongo district, 30 km south of Mina Justa (fig. 4, Caldas, 1978; Hawkes et al., 2002; Baxter et al., 2005). The volcaniclastic rocks locally incorporate rounded plagioclase phenoclasts in a fine-grained matrix. Subordinate host rocks include plagioclase- and hornblende-phyric andesite with vesicles filled by chlorite and carbonates. Lensoid marble bodies occur mainly in the southeast part of the area, but host no economic mineralization. The abundant secondary hydrothermal biotite and sericite inhibit definition of magmatic chemistry (Hawkes et al., 2002), but the correlative andesites at the base of the upper section of the Ro Grande Formation in Can Ro Grande (40 km northwest of Mina Justa) are K rich and have high Cu contents (avg 400 ppm: Aguirre, 1988). A swarm of northwest- to
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
north-striking, 20- to 50-m-wide andesitic dikes, constituting up to 35 percent of the rock volume in the main mineralization center, was emplaced following mineralization. These plagioclase-phyric, ocitic rocks are texturally and mineralogically similar to the Ro Grande Formation flows, but record only weak K feldspathization and sericitization. The Mina Justa deposit incorporates two principal orebodies, the Main and Upper (Figs. 10 and 11A). The mineralized lensoidal bodies characteristically comprise a massive magnetite-sulfide core enclosed by hydrothermal breccias with strongly altered host rock clasts in a magnetite+sulfide matrix, in turn surrounded by extensive stockwork (Fig. 12). They are controlled by subparallel, northeast-trending and shallowly southeast dipping faults and range from 10 m to 200 m in vertical extent (Baxter et al., 2005). The Main mineralized body
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CHEN ET AL.
Main orebody Upper orebody
MA 27 MA 35 MA 17 MA 64
100m
Ma in
B
800m
ore
bo
dy
Upp ore er bod y

m006 6 m 0
600m
Upp e
Ma in
r ore
bod y
400m
ore
bo d
A
Massive Magnetite body with minor Cu-oxides Cu-oxide zone Bornit e+ Chalcocite (+ Magnetit e) zone Bornit e+ Chalcopyrite (+ Magnetite) zone Chalcopyrite +Pyrit e (+ Magnetit e) zone Late ocoite Altered volcaniclastics (Rio Grande Format ion)
?
200m
100m
750m
550m
Main orebody
B
350m
FIG. 11. Cross sections through the Mina Justa orebodies. (A) Northwest-southeast section through the Main and Upper orebodies (from Baxter et al., 2005). (B) Southwest-northeast section through the Main orebody (sulfide zones modified after Moody et al., 2003).
NW
MA-64
640m Graphic logging Mineralization 495m
SE
MA-17
Graphic logging Mineralization 320m
MA-35
MA-27
Graphic logging Mine Mineralization 550m
MA-45
MA-89
Graphic logging Mineralization
Mt+Bn Mt+Cp +Py Mt+Hm +Bn + Cc 560m 445m Mt+Cp +Py
290m
M-C
290m
M-C
Mt+Cp +Py
467m
460m
Mt+Cp +Py
Mt+Cp +Py Mt+Bn Mt+Cp +Py
M-B
480m
395m
260m
260m
380m
430m
Veins Hydrothermal Breccias
Veins+ massive Magnetite + sulfide bodies Hydrothermal Breccias + massive Magnetite + sulfide bodies
M-B
Massive (Mt + Bn) Massive (Mt + Cp)
Pyrite-rich zone* Pyrite-rich zone* + hydrothermal Breccias
Altered sandy volcanoclastics Late ocoite
M-C
FIG. 12. Mineralogical and structural zonation of the Mina Justa orebodies, based on logging of selected drill cores. The locations of holes MA-64, MA-17, MA-35, and MA-27 are shown in Figure 11A. MA-45 and MA-89 are collared 600 to 800 m southeast of the upper zone and out of the map area in Figure 10. *Magnetite either occurs erratically as haloes around coarse-grained pyrite or is absent in this zone. Bn = bornite, Cc = chalcocite, Cp = chalcopyrite, Mt = magnetite, Py = pyrite. 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
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crops out as a 400 m long, discontinuous belt of Cu oxides and albite-K-feldspar-actinolite alteration (Fig. 10), which dips 10 to 30 to the southeast, i.e., at a high angle to the bedding of the host andesites. It has been intersected to a depth of 500 m, where it remains open (Fig. 11A). The Upper mineralized body, cropping out subparallel to and approximately 400 m southeast of the Main zone (Fig. 10), has a similar concaveupward, spoon-shaped form in section, and a similar dip of 10 to 30 to the southeast. On surface, this zone has been identified over a distance of at least 400 m and it has been intersected to a depth of 300 m (Fig. 11A). The similarly northeast-trending, but northwest-dipping magnetite lenses are also exposed on surface (Fig. 10). They commonly contain minor Cu oxides and are locally cut by the southeast-dipping Mina Justa normal faults (Fig. 11A). Copper oxide minerals, predominantly chrysocolla with lesser atacamite, dominate the upper 200 m of the deposit, giving way gradually to sulfides with depth (Fig. 11A, B). The oxide zone, with an average grade of 0.54 percent Cu, hosts approximately 40 to 50 percent of the recoverable Cu in the measured-plus-indicated reserves. In individual orebodies, the major sulfides are zoned upward, and locally laterally, but not strictly concentrically (cf. Moody et al., 2003), from pyrite-chalcopyrite to bornite-chalcocite ( digenite), with a concomitant increase in Cu grade (Figs. 11, 12). Around the magnetite-sulfide orebodies, the alteration is zoned outward from potassic (K-feldspar dominant), through calcic (actinolite) to sodic (albite). Hypogene hematite, in part as specularite, commonly occurs in the upper parts of the zones of Cu
Albite-actinolite alteration Stage J-I
K-feldspar-magnetite alteration Stage J-II
mineralization, particularly in the northeast quadrant of the orebodies. Paragenetic relationships Seven stages of hypogene alteration-mineralization, J-I through J-VII, are herein recognized at Mina Justa (Fig. 13). Stage J-Ialbite-actinolite alteration: The earliest hydrothermal event at Mina Justa generated widespread albiteactinolite alteration in andesitic lavas and volcaniclastic interbeds. Light pink albite and green, fine-grained actinolite (Table 3) replace both plagioclase phenocrysts and the matrix of andesites (Fig. 14A), recording Na metasomatism. Stage J-IIK-feldsparmagnetite alteration: Rocks affected by this event generally appear massive in hand specimen, and range from pink to black. K-feldspar commonly occurs as extremely small grains (<0.05 mm) replacing both fresh and previously albitized plagioclase (Fig. 14A), and the associated magnetite is mainly fine to medium grained (0.050.1 mm), locally forming aggregates interstitial to the feldspar (Fig. 14B). Stage J-II alteration, unambiguously the result of K-Fe metasomatism, was probably contemporaneous with the development of lenses of sulfide-free magnetite which strike northeast and dip northwest, subparallel to stratigraphy, and are locally crosscut by massive magnetite-pyrite bodies (Fig. 11A). Overprinting of stage J-II alteration by stage J-III actinolite and stage J-V coarse-grained K-feldspar magnetite is common (Fig. 14C). Stage J-IIIactinolite ( magnetite diopside) alteration: Green actinolite (Table 3), associated with minor magnetite,
Early hematite Stage J-IV Magnetite-pyriteK-feldspar alteration Stage J-V Cu mineralization Stage J-V I Late hematite Stage J-VII
Minerals Albite Microcline Diopside Actinolite Magnetite Hematite Pyrite Quartz Calcite Chlorite Ti tanite Apatite Allanite Chalcopyrite Bornite Chalcocite Sphalerite Galena Carrollite Molybdenite E pidote Clinozoisite Prehnite Barite
Actinolite-diopside -magnetite alteration Stage J-III
Note: supergene minerals are omitted
Abundant
Local
Trace
FIG. 13. Alteration and mineralization paragenesis of the Mina Justa Cu (-Ag) deposit. 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
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CHEN ET AL. TABLE 3. Representative Electron Microprobe Data for Hydrothermal Silicates and Sulfides from Mina Justa
Mineral Stage Sample no. SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Cl F Total Si Al 1 Al 2 Ti Fe Mn Mg Ca Na K Cl F R**
act J-I MA64 3 52.88 0.20 3.25 11.76 0.10 15.71 12.72 0.44 0.23 0.10 0.33 97.70 7.63 0.37 0.18 0.02 1.42 0.01 3.38 1.97 0.12 0.04 0.02 0.15 0.70
act J-III MA89 4-1 56.14 0.02 0.95 10.73 0.10 16.88 13.16 0.15 0.06 0.04 0.17 98.41 7.95 0.05 0.10 0.00 1.27 0.01 3.56 2.00 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.74
chl J-V MA89 4-2 32.62 0.02 14.41 20.41 1.06 17.71 1.56 0.12 0.03 0.04 0.32 88.31 6.67 1.33 2.14 0.00 3.49 0.18 5.40 0.34 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.21 0.39 As S Fe Ni Zn Ag Cu Co
dg J-VI MA64 4-II-1 0.00 20.99 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.24 78.40 0.00
dg J-VI MA64-4 II-1-A 0.12 21.38 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.26 78.25 0.00
bn J-VI MA64 4-II-2 0.000 25.18 11.17 0.00 0.00 0.12 63.41 0.00
cc J-VI MA64 4-I-1 0.10 20.13 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.14 80.46 0.00
Total
99.773
100.088
99.880
100.865
Notes: * = Total iron; number of ions calculated on the basis of F, Cl, and 23 O for actinolite (act); 28 O for chlorite (chl), bn = bornite, cc = chalcocite, dg = digenite; R**: Mg/Mg + Fe ratio for amphiboles; Fe/Fe+Mg for chlorite; detection limits for sulfides (in wt percent): Fe = 0.02; Ag = 0.04; As = 0.07; Cu = 0.02; S = 0.02; Ni, Co, and Zn = 0.06 1 Altetrahedral 2 Aloctahedral
FIG. 14. Mina Justa alteration and mineralization stages. (A) Light-pink albite (not stained) and fine-grained actinolite extensively replace original phenocrystic and groundmass plagioclase (stained pink to red). Stage J-II red microcline (stained yellow) replaces albite. Stage J-III actinolite is superimposed on albite and microcline (#MA64-7, drill core MA64, 394.4 m, 80 m from main orebody). (B) Fine-grained microcline coexists with magnetite in a clast cemented by stage J-III actinolite. Subhedral to euhedral actinolite crystals locally replace microcline (#MA64-3, drill core MA64, 220.1 m, plane-polarized transmitted light). (C) Magnetite-sulfide-calcite veins with K-feldspar haloes (red) cut stage J-III actinolite and stage J-II fine-grained K-feldspar-magnetite (gray to pink) alteration. Actinolite is extensively chloritized. (#MA17-7, drill core MA17, 364 m). (D) Red-green breccia in which stage J-III actinolite (green) matrix cements clasts of stage J-II fine-grained Kfeldspar - magnetite (Mt-1) (pinkish red to dark gray). Coarse-grained stage J-V magnetite (Mt-2) occurs with actinolite and locally as veins (# MA64-3, drill core MA64, 220.1 m). (E) Stage J-V magnetite (Mt-2)-bornite-chalcocite assemblage occurs as a matrix to pinkish-red stage J-II K-feldspar-magnetite (Mt-1) altered clasts cut by stage J-III actinolite (green) veins. The magnetite-sulfide matrix was reopened and partially replaced by late specularite (#MA64-6, drill core MA64, 276 m). (F) Platy stage J-V magnetite (after stage J-IV hematite) occurs with calcite, quartz and chalcopyrite. Chalcopyrite extensively replaces pyrite and locally occurs along fractures in magnetite. Chloritized stage J-III actinolite relics occur between the magnetite crystals. Stage J-IV calcite has planar contacts with platy magnetite, but is locally replaced by stage J-V granular magnetite and quartz veins. (#MA17-6 from drill core MA17, 355.1 m, combined reflected and transmitted light). (G) Hydrothermal breccia at the margin of the Main orebody. Magnetite (Mt-2)-sulfide occurs as a matrix around angular stage JII microcline-magnetite (Mt-1) clasts. Actinolite relics occur in matrix (#MA35-0, drill core MA35, 484.3 m). (H) Replacement of stage J-III actinolite by stage J-V magnetite-pyrite. Strong chloritization of actinolite is locally evident (lower-right) (#MA27-2, drill core MA27, 366.9 m; transmitted light, crossed nicols). (I) Spotty magnetite-chalcopyrite-quartz mineralization in earlier actinolite and microcline-magnetite (gray to pink) - altered host rocks. Chalcopyrite coexists with magnetite and quartz (#MJ-38, drill core MA54, 341.8 m). (J) Magnetite-pyrite-quartz alteration. Quartz is coarse grained and euhedral. Stage J-III actinolite crystals occur as relics in quartz grain (#MA17-6, drill core MA17, 355.1 m, combined reflected and transmitted light). (K) Magnetite alteration and related chloritization. Magnetite coexists with pyrite, quartz, and chlorite. Chlorite (locally with quartz) extensively replaces stage J-III actinolite (#MA89-4, drill core MA89, 360.2 m, plane-polarized transmitted light). (L) Chalcopyrite-calcite veins cut altered host rocks. Microcline occurs as haloes around calcite veins and locally cuts calcite (#MA45-6, drill core MA45, 404.2 m). (M) Chalcopyrite replaces stage J-V pyrite and magnetite (#MA17-9, drill core MA35, 507.9 m, plane-polarized reflected light). (N) Supergene covellite replaces chalcopyrite (# MA14-3, drillcore MA14, 394.7 m, plane-polarized reflected light). (O) Fine-grained bladed hematite coexists with bornite, digenite and chalcocite with vermicular and eutectic-like textures, occurring as patches in a magnetite vein which cuts host rocks (#MA64-4, drill core MA64, 248.3 m, plane-polarized reflected light). 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
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A
Ab
B
Kfs
C
Kfs halo
Kfs
Act
Ab
Mt - Cal-Sulfid e vein
Kfs
Act
Act
Act
Pl
Act -(Kfs- Mt) altered host rock
Mt
150 m
Pl
Kfs
0. 5 cm
E
Act
Kfs - Mt-1
F
Mt
Cp
Act
Kfs - Mt-1
Mt-2
Mt-2-Sul fi de
0. 5 cm 0. 5 cm
Cal
Qtz
150 m
I
Mt - Py
Act
Mt (II) - Sulfid e- Qtz spotty mineraliz ation
Kfs - Mt-1
Kfs Mt-1
Mt-2-Sul fide
Mt
0. 5 cm
Chl
Act - (Kfs-Mt-I) altered host rock
150 m
0. 5 cm
Qtz
K
Qtz
L
Cal vein with Kfs halos
Act
Py
Mt
Act
Py
Act - (Kfs + Mt) altered host rock
Cp
Mt
150 m
Chl
150 m
1 cm
Py
Cp
Qtz
Hm
Cp
Cv
Mt
Bn
Cc Dg
Mt
150 m 150 m
150 m
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CHEN ET AL.
occurs throughout the deposit, commonly as massive aggregates along the contacts of stage J-V magnetite bodies or as coarse, acicular crystals in veins cutting stage J-II K-feldsparmagnetite alteration. More locally, it forms the matrix of hydrothermal breccias (Fig. 14D) which incorporate clasts of K-feldspar-magnetitealtered host rocks. Actinolite intergrowths occur as irregular clasts in a magnetite-sulfide matrix along the contacts of the stage J-V magnetite bodies with their actinolitic alteration haloes. A temporal evolution is evident from K-feldsparmagnetite, through actinolite, to magnetitepyrite alteration (Fig. 14E). Actinolite is strongly chloritized and carbonatized, and locally replaced by quartz. It replaced both albite and K-feldspar, evidence for Ca metasomatism. Diopside is spatially associated with and locally replaced by actinolite in the albitized and K-Femetasomatised host rocks. Stage J-IVearly hematite-calcite alteration: Mushketovite, i.e., magnetite unambiguously pseudomorphous after specular hematite, occurs commonly in the main magnetite bodies, evidence for a now obliterated hematite-dominant stage which temporally separated the actinolite alteration and the main magnetite alteration in andesite. The hematite originally formed fractured plates (Fig. 14F). Anhedral-to-subhedral, and medium- to coarse-grained calcite is intergrown with the pseudomorphs, and is locally replaced by quartz and magnetite. Coarse-grained, subhedral-to-euhedral allanite (stage J-V) occurs rarely as inclusions in stage J-IV calcite in contact with stage J-V magnetite and pyrite. Stage J-Vmagnetite-pyrite-K-feldspar alteration: The massive, lensoid, and brecciated magnetite-pyrite bodies which host the highest grade copper sulfide mineralization at Mina Justa were controlled by the northeast-striking, southeast-dipping, Mina Justa system faults, but are dislocated by the northwest-striking, northeast-dipping Huaca faults and associated ocite dikes. Magnetite-pyrite veins, varying from 0.1 to 5 cm in width, cut alteration assemblages of stages J-II and J-III adjacent to the massive magnetite bodies. Hydrothermal breccias commonly occur at the margins of the magnetite bodies, and comprise a magnetite-pyritedominant matrix and angular clasts of andesite altered to microcline (stage J-II) or actinolite (stage J-III) (Fig. 14G), and magnetite-pyrite intergrowths locally replace stage J-III actinolite (Fig. 14H). Rarely, stage J-V magnetite-rich alteration occurs as spots in altered host rocks peripheral to the main magnetite bodies (Fig. 14I). Magnetite and pyrite of stage J-V are medium- to coarsegrained (0.510 mm, with some pyrite exceeding 1 cm) and subhedral to euhedral. Magnetite commonly occurs interstitially to pyrite and has planar grain boundaries (Fig. 14J). Abundant quartz is associated with magnetite-pyrite alteration in the main magnetite bodies, occurring as 0.1 to 1 mm, subhedral to euhedral, crystals interstitial to magnetite and pyrite and commonly with actinolite inclusions (Fig. 14J). Accessory calcite is generally anhedral to subhedral and mediumgrained, coexisting with magnetite, pyrite, and quartz. Pink or red K-feldspar, predominantly microcline, is a common alteration mineral in rocks associated with stage J-V magnetitepyrite mineralization, forming haloes to magnetite-pyrite veins or patches incorporating medium- to fine-grained magnetite crystals and superimposed on early alteration (Fig.
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14C). Chlorite, largely diabantite (classification of Hey, 1954; Table 3), extensively replaces actinolite or diopside (Fig. 14K), and locally occurs in veins with magnetite, pyrite, and quartz. Titanite commonly forms medium-grained subhedral crystals or aggregates enclosed by chlorite, as well as euhedral grains in magnetite-pyrite-quartz-chlorite veins. Fluorapatite locally occurs in stage J-V veins, but more commonly forms coarse-grained, subhedral to euhedral grains in stage J-III actinolite in contact with magnetite bodies. The mutual relationships of apatite and actinolite are ambiguous. Stage J-VIcopper sulfide mineralization: Stage J-V magnetite alteration zones, although rich in pyrite, lack inherent Cu sulfides. Copper sulfide-bearing veins, assigned to stage JVI, locally cut altered host rocks and stage J-V magnetitepyrite-quartz (Fig. 14L), but the Cu sulfides and associated assemblages more commonly occur in massive magnetitepyrite bodies or veins with which they exhibit unambiguous microscopic replacement textures (Fig. 14M). Locally, stage J-V magnetite-pyrite aggregates in stage J-III actinolite veins have been almost completely replaced by chalcopyrite or bornite, giving rise to the common actinolite-Cu sulfide association, or in some cases, pyrite was intensively replaced by chalcopyrite and generated the magnetite-chalcopyrite association in hand specimens (e.g., Fig. 14G, I). The main hypogene Cu sulfides at Mina Justa are, in decreasing abundance, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, and digenite. Except for chalcopyrite, these are concentrated above or in the upper parts of the main magnetite bodies, commonly forming veins that cut the host rocks and earlier alteration assemblages. Covellite, entirely supergene, occurs mainly in the lower part of the oxide zone, replacing bornite and chalcopyrite (Fig. 14N). Chalcocite, digenite, and bornite typically form large patches with complex vermicular intergrowths (Fig. 14O), such as are inferred to form through noncoherent exsolution at low temperature (<250C) and under protracted cooling (Brett, 1964). Similar hypogene relationships were documented at the Olympic Dam deposit by Roberts et al. (1983). Copper sulfides exhibiting vermicular textures are all rich in silver (Table 3), and represent the major Ag host in the ores. Chalcocite, bornite, and chalcopyrite locally occur together, with no unambiguous mutual replacement relationships. Accessory stage J-VI sulfides include sphalerite, galena, molybdenite, and rare fine-grained (<25 m), carrollite which generally coexist with chalcopyrite and locally replace pyrite. The iron oxide associated with both chalcopyrite and bornite-chalcocite mineralization is fine-grained platy hematite, commonly occurring as aggregates around Cu sulfides (Fig. 14O). Locally, stage J-VI hematite formed with chalcopyrite along the boundaries of earlier magnetite grains or stage J-IV coarse-grained hematite (mushketovite). Calcite is the dominant nonmetallic mineral associated with Cu mineralization, generally occurring in veins which cut the host rocks and magnetite mineralization (Fig. 14L). Calcite-Cu sulfide assemblages dominate these veins but give way upward to hematitebearing assemblages. Albite ( microcline) locally occurs in chalcopyrite-calcite veins cutting altered andesite host rock. Sparse epidote veins with chalcopyrite or bornite cut stage J-V magnetite-pyrite mineralization and associated chloritic alteration zones. Red microcline and subordinate light-pink albite occur as narrow haloes around calcite-chalcopyrite
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veins, and locally cut calcite, evidence that they partially postdated Cu mineralization. Epidote and clinozoisite commonly occur in calcite in contact with K-feldspar. Barite locally occurs in these late K-feldspar veins, but the temporal relationships between K-feldspar veins and specular hematite (stage J-VII) are ambiguous. Stage J-VIIspecular hematite: In the upper parts of the orebodies, a Cu sulfide-barren hematite stage locally developed. Medium- to coarse-grained (0.10.5 mm), specular hematite forms veins cutting stage J-III actinolite alteration zones and stage J-V magnetite mineralization. Locally, stage J-VII hematite replaces stage J-V (magnetite) and stage JVI (Cu) mineralization in hydrothermal breccias. The replacement and crosscutting relationships between stage JVII hematite and Cu sulfides confirm the distinction of stage J-VII. Geochronology Conventional K-Ar ages of 154 4 (2 ) Ma and 160 4 Ma for, respectively, sericite and phlogopite from Marcona were reported by Injoque (1985). Although supporting a mid-Jurassic
40Ar/39Ar
age for the main period of magnetite mineralization, these data provide no evidence of the duration of hydrothermal activity in this multistage center. Moreover, the age relationships of the Marcona and Mina Justa deposits have remained uncertain: only problematic K-Ar whole-rock dates ranging from 104 3 to 132 5 Ma have been reported for the latter (N. Hawkes, 2003, Marcona district geochronology and new age date results: unpub. memo, Rio Tinto Mining and Exploration Ltd., 2 p.). Laser-induced incremental-heating 40Ar/ 39Ar techniques were herein applied to high-quality mineral separates from samples well documented in terms of field relationships and mineralogy. The dated materials include biotite, phlogopite, cummingtonite, tremolite, actinolite and microcline from Marcona, and actinolite and microcline from Mina Justa. The age spectra and corresponding Ca/K and Cl/K ratios and inverse-isochron plots for Marcona and Mina Justa are illustrated in Figures 15 and 16, respectively; analytical details are provided in the Appendix. The locations and descriptions of the dated Marcona and Mina Justa samples are documented in Table 4. All dates are quoted with an uncertainty of 2 (95 percent confidence level). An age
TABLE 4. Summary of 40Ar/39Ar Ages from Marcona and Mina Justa Sample no. Marcona MA5-9A* MA5-2 MA5-9B MA3-30 MA3-24 MA3-19 DDM3-3-8 MA91-2* DDM5-4-2 DDM3-3-1 Mina Justa MA45-2* MJ-6 MA64-3* MA17-7 MA14-3 MA45-6 MA17-9 Mina Justa, drill core MA45, 262m Mina Justa, drill core MA64 Mina Justa, drill core MA64, 220.1m Mina Justa, drill core MA17; 364 m Mina Justa, drill core MA14; 394.7 m Mina Justa, drill core MA45; 404.2 m Mina Justa, drill core MA17; 408.7 m Act alteration in andesite Hem-cp-ep-ab veins cut stage II mc-altered andesite Coarse-grained act ( mt) brecciated K-Fe metasomatised andesite Py-mt-mc veins Mt-py-mc aggregates in act-altered andesite Cal-cp veins (with ab-mc envelope) Cal-cp veins and late-filling mc veins cut act veins act mc (+ ab) act mc mc mc (+ ab) mc J-I J-II J-III J-V J-V J-VI Late-stage J-VI 157.3 3.5 154.3 5.5 142.4 6.7 110.9 0.7 109.9 1.0 1) 103.7 0.6 1) 101.5 0.7 99.1 0.9 95.0 0.6 Marcona, Mina 5 open pit (670 m a.s.l., NE corner) Marcona, Mina 5 open pit (620 m a.s.l., center) Marcona, Mina 5 open pit (670 m a.s.l., NE corner) Marcona, Mina 3 open pit (580 m a.s.l., south wall) Marcona, Mina 3 open pit (580 m a.s.l., SW corner) Marcona, Mina 3 open pit (580 m a.s.l., SW corner) Marcona, Mina 3 drill core DDM3-3; 418 m Marcona, Mina 11, drill core MA91, 92m Marcona, Mina 5 drill core DDM5-4; 210 m Marcona, Mina 3 drill core DDM3-3; 340 m Fine-grained mt occurs interstitially with cum and bt Fine-grained mt occurs with sulfide, cum and Phl Fine-grained mt occurs interstitially with cum and bt Fine-grained mc alteration in dacite Mc veins cut albitized dacite and are refilled by act-sulfide veins Coarse-grained mt-sulfides-phl Trm-sulfide aggregates replacing massive mt Fine-grained mt occurs interstitially with trm and sulfides Act-sulfide veins cutting mt Trm cementing mt-sulfide-act clasts cum phl bt mc mc phl trm trm act trm M-I-A M-I-B M-III M-III M-III M-IV M-V M-V M-V M-V 177.0 1.5 175.2 2.3 171.5 1.11 161.4 0.9 109.2 0.6 101.0 0.6 159.7 0.8 158.5 1.9 157.3 3.2 156.8 2.9 156.6 4.2 156.2 2.4 Location Sample description Mineral dated Stage Plateau age 2 (Ma)
* Samples with double runs Mineral abbreviations: ab = albite, act = actinolite, bt = biotite, cal = calcite, cp = chalcopyrite, cum = cummingtonite, ep = epidote, hem = hematite, mc = microcline, mt = magnetite, phl = phlogopite, py = pyrite, trm = tremolite 1 Plateau represents less than 50% of 39Ar released 0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
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Stage M-I-A
Rerun
Stage M-I-A Stage M-I-B

240
200
Stage M-I-B
240
200
Stage M-III
240
200
Stage M-III Stage M-III

240
200
MA3-24. Microcline MA3-30. Microcline
240
MA5-9A. Cummi ngtonite + Greenalite
200
A
175. 2
171. 5 1. 1
MSWD=1 .6 35. 5% 39Ar released
Mg/Mg+ Fe = 0. 74
240
MA5-9A. Cummi ngtonite + Greenalite
MA5-2. Phlogopite + Chlorite-Talc
MA5-2. Phlogopite+ Chlorite-Talc
MA5-9B. Biotite
177. 0 1. 5
160
120 120 120
MSWD=0 .7 1 80% 39Ar released
200
B
2. 3
160
12 0
109. 2 0. 6
C
Rerun
D
200
161. 4 0. 9
E
Mg/Fe = 1. 6 Ann57
24 0
F G
101. 0
No plateau age
160
120
160
MSWD=1 .0 6 39 73. 8% Ar released
120
MSWD=0 .4 9 61% 39Ar released
160
160
160
0. 6
120
40 Ar/ Ar
36
Age (Ma)
36
40 Ar/ Ar
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80
Integrated Age: 162. 05 2. 89
Age (Ma)
80
80
80
80
80
MSWD=1 .6 39 76% Ar released
80
40
40
Integrated Age: 107 .8 3 0. 47
40
00
40
100
0
20
39
40
40
100
00 1
40
20 20
40
40
0. 01
Integrated Age: 161. 81
1. 29
20
40
100
00
80 60 Cumulative Ar percent
39
100 60 80 Cumulative 39Ar percent

20
40
Cumulative Ar percent
1 0. 1 0. 01
Ca / K
0. 00024
20
40
60 39 60 80 39 Cumulative Ar percent
80
40
60
80
100
1
Cl / K
Ca / K
0. 00012
1
Cl / K Ca / K
Cl / K
Inverse isochron Age: 110. 2 3. 2
Initial 40Ar/ 36Ar= 279
MSWD=1 .7
Ca / K
0. 1
Cl / K
60 80 100 0 Cumulative 39Ar percent 0. 1 Cl / K
Ca / K
100 60 80 20 40 Cumulative 39Ar percent

Ca / K
0. 1
Cl / K
Ca / K
0. 00045
Cl / K
0. 00055
0. 0015
40 36
Inverse isochron Age: 177.1

Initial Ar/ Ar= 294
Initial Ar/ Ar= 123
13 0
Initial 40Ar/ 36Ar =328 49
0. 00045 0. 00020
MSWD=0 .4 9
3. 7
10
89
0. 00010
40 36
Initial 40Ar/36Ar= 292

Initial 40Ar/36Ar =734
MSWD=0 .2 5
15
MSWD=1 .4
MSWD=0 .2 1
0. 00035
0. 0022
0. 00048

62
0. 00044
Initial Ar/ Ar= 255

MSWD=0 .3 7
40
36
40
0. 0013
MSWD=0 .5 7
0. 00008 0. 00025
0. 00006 0. 00012
0. 0018
0. 0011 0. 00035
0. 00016
0. 0004 0
0. 00036
0. 0014
0. 0009
0. 00004
0. 00015 0. 00025
0. 00008 0. 00004 0. 00032
0. 0007 0. 00002
0. 0010
0. 0005 0. 052
0. 060
0. 064
0. 094
0. 064
0. 096
0. 102
0. 068
0. 076
0. 084
0. 0006 0. 052
0. 060
0. 094
0. 068
0. 076
0. 00005 0. 084 0. 093

0. 09 5
0. 098
0. 096
0. 097
0. 098
0. 00000 0. 092
0. 100
0. 101
0. 00000 0. 099
0. 103
0. 105
0. 107
0. 00015 0. 126
0. 130
0. 134
39
0. 138
0. 142
0. 00028 0. 141 0. 143 0. 146
0. 145
0. 147
0. 149
0. 151
39 39 39
Ar/40Ar Ar/ 40Ar Ar/40Ar

39
39
Ar/ 40Ar Ar/40Ar
Ar/ Ar
40
39
Ar/ 40Ar
Stage M-IV
DDM5-4 -2 . Actinolite
Stage M-V Stage M-V

DDM3- 3- 1. Tremolite
DDM3- 3- 8. Tremolite Mg/Fe+ Mg = 0. 92
Stage M-V
240
Stage M-V
MA91- 2 Actinolite
Stage M-V
MA91- 2 Actinolite
240 240
MA3-19. Phlogopite
CHEN ET AL.
174
J
Mg/Mg+ Fe = 0. 64
20 0
H
158. 5
160
Mg/Fe = 21 .5 Ann4. 5
240
200
I
1. 9
156.6
160
120
MSWD=1 .0 39 100% Ar released
K
Mg/Mg+ Fe = 0. 96
240
L
157. 3 3. 2
240
200
M
160
120
Rerun
200
200
200
160
120
159. 7
0. 8
160
120
4. 2
160
156. 2
2. 4
156.8 2. 9
MSWD=0 .4 39 99. 9% Ar released
120
120
80 80
80
80
80
80
40 40
00 0
0. 30
40
20
40
0
20
40
00
40
20
00
3. 64
0 0
100
40
39
60
80
100
40
39
60
80
100
20
40
100 60 80 40 39 Cumulative Ar percent
100 10
Ca / K
60
39
80
100
10
100
0. 1
10
Ca / K
1
Ca / K ratio is off scale
80 60 20 40 Cumulative 39Ar percent
100 60 80 20 40 Cumulative 39Ar percent
Ca / K
Cl / K
100
1
Cl / K
0. 01
Ca / K
Cl / K
4. 7
0. 0018
Cl / K
Inverse isochron Age: 162 69
0. 00 4
40
1
Cl / K
1
Cl / K
0. 005
Inverse isochron Age: 159. 5

Initial Ar/ Ar= 295
MSWD=0 .037
40 36
0. 9
23
MSWD=0 .041
0. 00003
40
36
0. 004

Initial Ar/ Ar= 272
0. 0014
40 36

Initial Ar/ Ar= 293
36
0. 0045

13
22
Initial Ar/ Ar= 300
40 36
Inverse isochron Age: 158

40
Initial 40Ar/ 36Ar= 293 32
0. 004
27
MSWD=0 .1 3
0. 0035
0. 003
Initial Ar/ Ar= 452 MSWD=1 .1 9

28 0
0. 003
33 0
MSWD=0 .103
MSWD=0 .042
0. 003
0. 00002
0. 002
0. 0010
0. 00 2
0. 0025
0. 00001
0. 001
0. 0006
0. 001
0. 002
0. 0015
0. 000
0. 072
39
0. 001
0. 00
0. 02
0. 00000 0. 1068 0. 1072

0. 02
0. 04
39
0. 1096
0. 00 0 0. 00
0. 06
0. 08
0. 10
0. 0002 0. 12 0. 064 0. 06 8
0. 076
0. 080
0. 084
0. 04
0. 06
39
0. 08
0. 10
0. 12
39
Ar/ Ar
40
Ar/ Ar
40
Ar/ Ar
40
0. 0005 0. 00
0. 02
0. 04
0. 06
0. 00
0. 02
39
0. 04
0. 06
Ar/40Ar
39
Ar/ Ar
40
Ar/40 Ar
FIG. 15. Laser-induced 40Ar/39Ar age spectra, with Ca/K and Cl/K ratios for each heating step, and inverse isochron plots, for samples from Marcona alteration and mineralization stages.
Stage J-I
240
MA45-2 Actinolite
B C
154. 3 5. 5
160
MSWD=0 .7 5 99. 8% 39Ar released
240
MA45-2 Actinolite
Rerun
200
Stage J-I
240
Stage J-II
MJ-6 . Microcline + Albite
Stage J-III
240
MA64-3. Actinolite
D
142. 4 6. 7
160
120
The last step 110. 9 0. 7
E
No plateau age
A
157. 3
160
200
3. 5
200
200
42. 0
120 120 120
160
in
cl
cr o
se
Age (Ma)
80
80
80
80
la
40
0 0 0
40
40
0
20
40
0
20
10
Ca / K
rth oc
(060)
di
I J G H
100
10
10
ne
an i
40 Ar/ Ar
36
Age( Ma)
40 Ar/A r
36
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
0
20
C
Ca / K Cumulative Ar percent
39
40
1
Cl / K
Ca / K
39
60
80
1
Cl / K
100
40
60
80
100
20

0
40
60
80
100
1
0. 0028
Cl / K

0. 005
MSWD=0 .056

0. 0032
Initial Ar/ Ar= 297. 4 6. 3
MSWD=0 .1 7
40 36
0. 0035
Inverse isochron Age: 99. 4 2. 7 (Low T-steps 1- 4)

Initial 40Ar/ 36Ar= 302 .2
MSWD=0 .2 1
0. 0024
0. 004
0. 0028
MSWD=0 .1 5
7. 5
0. 0020
0. 0025
41. 5 50. 5
0. 003
0. 0016
(204)
0. 0012
51. 0
0. 0024
0. 0015
0. 002
0. 0020
0. 0008 0. 025
0. 035
39
0. 045
0. 055
0. 065
39
0. 001 0. 00
0. 01 0. 02
0. 03
0. 04
40
0. 05 0. 06
Ar/ Ar
Stage J-V Stage J-V
150
40
Ar/ Ar
0. 0016 0. 00
0. 01
0. 02
39
0. 03
0. 04
0. 05
0. 0005 0. 00
0. 04
0. 08
0. 12
Ar/ Ar
Stage J-VI
40
39
Ar/ Ar
Stage J-VI
MA17- 9. Microcline
40
Stage J-III
150
175
MA17-7. Microcline
150
MA64-3. Actinolite
MA14- 3. Microcline
MA45-6. Microcline + Albite
150
F
103. 7
100
Rerun
G
0. 6
H
101. 5
I
99. 1
100
150
J
1. 0
100
0. 7
95. 0 0. 6
100
109. 9
1. 0
100
50
50
50
50
50
0. 6
0. 5
1. 2
0. 4
0
0. 01
Ca / K

100
0. 01

100
100

0. 1
Ca / K
100

Ca / K
Ca / K
100
10
Ca / K
Cl / K
0. 1
0. 00115
0. 00105
Initial Ar/ Ar= 267
40 36

10 0
9. 1
0. 0015
0. 0013
0. 00074
0. 00072
MSWD=0 .5 0
Inverse isochron Age: 106 .2 8. 7

Initial 40Ar/ 36Ar= 300
MSWD=1 .0 4
2. 0
13
0. 0032

Initial Ar/ Ar= 296. 4
40 36
1. 7
2. 9
Inverse isochron Age: 92 .7

0. 00105
0. 0028
MSWD=1 .2
2. 2
MSWD=1 .0
Initial Ar/ Ar= 317
40
36
73
MSWD=1 .0 9
0. 00095
0. 00068
0. 00066
0. 00070
0. 0009 5
0. 0011
0. 0009
0. 0007
0. 0024
0. 0020
0. 00085
0. 00064
0. 00062
0. 00060
0. 0008 5
0. 00075
0. 0016
0. 00075
0. 0006 5 0. 104
39
0. 108
0. 112
0. 116
0. 133 0. 134 0. 135 0. 136 0. 137 0. 138 0. 139
0. 00065
0. 0005 0. 09
40
0. 10 0. 11
39
0. 12
0. 13
0. 14
0. 0012 0. 00
0. 02 0. 04
0. 06 0. 08
0. 10
0. 12
0. 122 0. 126 0. 130 0. 134 0. 138 0. 142 0. 146 0. 150
39
Ar/ Ar
40
Ar/ Ar
Ar/ 40Ar
39
Ar/ 40Ar
39
Ar/ 40Ar
FIG. 16. (A) X-ray powder diffraction data for hydrothermal K-feldspars from Mina Justa (data fall in the microcline fields in the Al/Si ordering diagram of Wright, 1968). (B-J) Laser-induced 40Ar/39Ar age spectra, with Ca/K and/or Cl/K ratios for each heating step, and inverse isochron plots for each sample.
175
176
CHEN ET AL.
plateau is defined as at least three contiguous outgassing steps with ages that are concordant at 2 errors, that account for at least 50 percent of the 39Ar released, and show no monotonic increase or decrease with temperature (Dalrymple and Lanphere, 1974). spectra and age relationships Marcona: Two acceptable and concordant plateau ages of 177.0 1.5 Ma and 175.2 2.3 Ma are given by stage M-IA cummingtonite. The cummingtonite is locally replaced by stage M-III biotite (Fig. 9B), which gave a significantly younger plateau age of 161.4 0.9 Ma (Fig. 15E; Table 4). The 175 to 177 Ma age for the cummingtonite hosted by the upper Marcona Formation demonstrates that it represents a precursor alteration event during the initial deposition of the overlying Ro Grande Formation in the Aalenian, i.e., prior to 174.0+1.0 Ma and after 178.0+1.0 Ma (Plfy et al., 2000). Stage 7.9 1.5 M-IB phlogopite gives a quasiplateau age of 171.5 1.1 Ma (Fig. 15C), but the inverse-isochron age (171.0 1.9 Ma) obtained for a duplicate sample (Fig. 15D) indicates that the plateau age is probably acceptable. In the latter sample, the age spectrum exhibits a configuration suggestive of reactorinduced 39Ar recoil, and therefore the apparent age of the highest-temperature step, i.e., 172.6 1.8 Ma, may represent a maximum for the age of crystallization. Coarse-grained stage M-III biotite gives a good plateau age of 161.4 0.9 Ma (Fig. 15E). Two stage M-III K-feldspars (maximum microcline) from potassic alteration zones in dacite porphyry give acceptable plateau ages of 109.2 0.6 Ma and 101.0 0.6 Ma (Figs. 15F and G), which are markedly younger than those for M-III biotite. Microcline has a low closure temperature of 130 to 160C (Harrison and McDougall, 1982), and the two age plateaus are therefore interpreted as recording resetting by late thermal events. The Marcona deposit area was therefore probably heated, albeit non-pervasively, to over ~130C in the mid-Cretaceous. The lowest-temperature step in the spectrum for MA3-30 may record a second, ca. 90 Ma resetting (Fig. 15F). A stage M-IV phlogopite gave a good plateau age of 159.7 0.8 Ma (Fig. 15H). This age, slightly younger than that for stage M-III biotite, is in conformity with the textural evidence for replacement of biotite by phlogopite (Fig. 9I). Stage M-V tremolite and actinolite, both associated with chalcopyrite and pyrite, gave acceptable and similar plateau ages of 158.5 1.9 and 156.6 4.2 Ma (Figs. 15I and J). A second stage M-V tremolite, unassociated with sulfides, gives a plateau age of 156.2 2.4 Ma (Fig. 15K). An actinolite from the Mina 11 orebody, probably corresponding to either stage M-V or stage M-IV in the more westerly Marcona orebodies, gave a good plateau age of 157.3 3.2 Ma (Fig. 15L). An identical plateau age of 156.8 2.9 Ma (Fig. 15M) was obtained for a duplicate sample. These actinolite ages are concordant with those for stages M-IV and M-V actinolite from Minas 3 and 5, demonstrating that, although mineralogically distinctive, the Cu-rich Mina 11 orebody represents an integral part of the Marcona deposit. Despite the possibility of resetting of biotite due to its relatively low closure temperature (ca. 310C: Harrison et al., 1985), the plateau ages for the alteration minerals of stages M-III, M-IV, and M-V at Marcona are in conformity with
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
40Ar/39Ar
paragenetic relationships (Fig. 8; Table 4), and imply that the main episode of base-metal mineralization shortly followed the emplacement of the economic magnetite bodies. Mina Justa: Two actinolite and five alkali feldspar separates were dated from Mina Justa (Table 4). X-ray powder diffraction study shows that all of the feldspars are strongly ordered, with the microcline structure (Fig. 16A). Two heating runs for a fine-grained, stage J-I actinolite (MA45-2) gave good plateau ages of 157.3 3.5 and 154.3 5.5 Ma (Figs. 16B and C). The stage J-I actinolite ages are, within error, concordant with those for the magnetite and polymetallic sulfide mineralization at Marcona (Table 4). An alkali feldspar separate (Fig. 16D) from the envelope of a stage J-VI hematite-chalcopyrite (-epidote) vein-cutting altered Ro Grande Formation andesite yields a significantly younger plateau age of 142.4 6.7 Ma (Table 4). The low K content is responsible for the large error (Fig. 16D). Feldspar staining of this sample reveals intergrown albite, and the relatively high Ca/K ratio may record the presence of albitic plagioclase or minor epidote in the separates. The Berriasian age is therefore interpreted as that of stage J-II (Fig. 13), implying that the hematite, chalcopyrite, and epidote in the sample were emplaced during stage J-VI through reopening of a fracture with previously feldspathized margins. A stage J-III coarse-grained actinolite gives a disturbed apparent age spectrum (Fig. 16E), with a configuration suggestive of Cl-derived excess argon (McDougall and Harrison, 1999) in the low-temperature steps. The age of the highesttemperature step, 110.9 0.7 Ma, may therefore approach the true age. The disturbed spectrum of a duplicate sample incorporates a trough at 109.9 1.0 Ma (Fig. 16F), which is concordant within 2 error with the inverse-isochron age (107.2 9.1 Ma) given by the three steps constituting a mini plateau. Microcline associated with the main Mina Justa magnetite stage (Table 4) has a quasi-plateau age of 103.7 0.6 Ma (Fig. 16G). In contrast, a second stage J-V microcline (MA14-3) gave a good plateau age of 101.5 0.7 Ma (Fig. 16H). Microcline (+ albite) from the stage J-VI Cu mineralization (MA456) associated with calcite and chalcopyrite, but not with magnetite, similarly yields an acceptable plateau age of 99.1 0.9 Ma (Fig. 16I), which is slightly younger than those of the two dated stage J-V microclines. A microcline vein (MA17-9) which reopened a calcite-chalcopyrite vein gives an age of 95.0 0.6 (Fig 16J). Microcline has a low argon closure temperature and the five apparent age plateaus determined for this mineral at Mina Justa could therefore be interpreted as recording resetting by postmineralization thermal events, ascribable to the numerous postmineralization ocitic andesite dikes assigned to the Upper Cretaceous Tunga andesite (Caldas, 1978). However, the considerably older plateau age (142.4 6.7 Ma) yielded by the stage J-II microcline indicates that Ar resetting of triclinic feldspar was not pervasive within the deposit, which was possibly due to fast cooling of andesitic dikes. Considering the errors, two stage J-V microclines give an age range of 100.8 to 104.3 Ma, at least 0.8 m.y. older than those of two stage J-VI microclines (94.4100.0 Ma), which perfectly conforms to the defined paragenesis (Table 4). Partially or complete resetting of K-feldspar Ar-Ar ages by Tunga
176
177
andesite in the same district can not reasonably explain these internally consistent results. In addition, regarding the high closure temperature of amphibole (~550C; McDougall and Harrison, 1999), the age data for stage J-III actinolite may imply a maximum age of ca. 110 Ma for stages J-V and VI alteration and mineralization and the younger feldspar dates are therefore interpreted as representing crystallization ages. We conclude that the main hydrothermal events (stages JIVJ-VI) at Mina Justa, i.e., those responsible for the formation of hematite and magnetite as well as the Cu mineralization, occurred at ca. 100 Ma, in the Albian, which is generally concordant with the major IOCG epoch in the central Andes (Fig. 17). Stages J-I (albitization) and J-II (K-feldspathization), however, were much older and were not directly related to the development of the orebodies, but probably were temporally associated with the Marcona mineralization system and subsequent hydrothermal events. Two young ages (109.2 0.6 Ma and 101.0 0.6 Ma) from stage M-III K-feldspar at Marcona may record the resetting by later Mina Justa hydrothermal events or Tunga andesite. Nonetheless, the possibility of resetting of Mina Justa K-feldspar and actinolite by Tunga andesite can not be entirely excluded and the Mina Justa mineralization and alteration system may have developed prior to the Albian, or coincided with the Upper Cretaceous Tunga andesite event. Evolution of the Marcona-Mina Justa District The Mesozoic magnetite-rich mineralization of the Marcona-Mina Justa district, extending over an area exceeding 75 km2 and encompassing numerous dispersed orebodies, occurred episodically over a period of ca. 80 m.y., extending from 176 Ma to, at least, 95 Ma, with the uncertainities of possible Ar-Ar resetting. Moreover, Cu mineralization at Mina Justa is shown to have been emplaced at least 60 m.y. after that in the Marcona deposit and therefore cannot be genetically related to it. Figures 18 and 19 illustrate the major events in the district recorded by the newly defined paragenetic and age data. (1) Precursor alteration, ca. 176 Ma (Fig. 18A) Cummingtonite-dominated alteration (stage M-IA, Fig. 8) in metasedimentary units of the Marcona Formation ~300 m below the unconformity with the Ro Grande Formation, was apparently unassociated with either magnetite or Cu sulfide mineralization. Development of an alkali-poor MgFe amphibole implies either that the metaclastic, in part calcareous, host rocks had earlier suffered feldspar destruction without the formation of muscovite, possibly as a result of chloritization, or, more probably, were directly affected by Mg-Fe metasomatism and concomitant Si, Ca, and alkali depletion. Similar early development of Mg-Fe clinoamphibole has been documented from several other IOCG deposits, including Vhjoki, Finland (Liipo and Laajoki, 1991); Osborne, Cloncurry (Adshead, 1995); La Candelaria, Chile (Ullrich and Clark, 1997, 1999); Salobo, Carajs (Requia and Fontbot, 1999; Requia et al., 2003); and Guelb Moghrein, Mauritania (Kolb et al., 2006). At Osborne, amphibole alteration, in part magnesian, may have occurred ca. 55 m.y. prior to the main Cu mineralization event (Gauthier et al., 2001).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
The two Ar/Ar age spectra for cummingtonite confirm that this precursor alteration took place in the Aalenian, contemporaneously with the initial sediment-dominated, shallowmarine, accumulation of the overlying Ro Grande Formation. Hydrothermal activity is therefore inferred to have occurred at very low pressure and at temperatures considerably below 760C (Evans and Ghiorso, 1995). A plausible environment would be the southwest margin of an arc-parallel rift delimited by segments of the northeast-dipping Pista fault system (Fig. 18A), recording northeast-southwest extension within the West Peruvian trough at the outset of the Middle Jurassic (Benavides-Cceres, 1999). (2) Precursor phlogopite-magnetite mineralization, 171 Ma (Fig. 18B) 40Ar/39Ar age spectra for hydrothermal phlogopite coexisting with magnetite in the upper Marcona Formation are interpreted as evidence either for a discrete alteration-mineralization event (M-IB) in the Bajocian or, less probably, for a continuation of the hydrothermal activity recorded by the 177 Ma cummingtonite. The mineral assemblage records intense K-Fe metasomatism. At this stage, intermediate to silicic pyroclastic activity was well underway and a significant thickness of the lower Ro Grande Formation had locally accumulated, in permissive agreement with a magmatic contribution to this apparently minor magnetite mineralization, the first of at least four such episodes in the district. Localization by continued displacement on the Pista fault system is favored (Fig. 18B). (3) Albite-scapolite alteration No age data are available for the Na-Cl metasomatism responsible for the widespread stage M-II albite marialitic scapolite alteration predating stage M-III: this can only be bracketed between ca. 171 and 162 Ma. Albitization at Marcona is markedly less intense than in most other IOCG centers, e.g., the La Candelaria deposit (Ullrich and Clark, 1999), but is similarly unassociated with either magnetite or sulfide deposition. Albite (-scapolite) alteration is also developed in both dacite porphyry and Marcona Formation rocks in immediate contact with the Minas 24 magnetite orebody, and therefore persisted into stage M-III. (4) Main magnetite and magnetite-sulfide mineralization, 159162 Ma (Figs. 18C-D) The excellent 40Ar/39Ar age plateaus determined for stage M-III biotite (161.4 Ma) and stage M-IV phlogopite (159.7 Ma) directly associated with, respectively, the major Mina 5 and Mina 3 magnetite orebodies, indicate that the most important magnetite mineralization at Marcona took place close to the Bathonian-Callovian boundary (Plfy et al., 2000). They are also in agreement with the development of biotite largely prior to the phlogopite. The initial deposition of chalcopyrite occurred at ca. 160 Ma. Iron oxide and sulfide mineralization at Marcona therefore shortly followed the ca. 164 to 166 m.y. hiatus in andesitic volcanism documented in the upper Ro Grande Formation (Fig. 18C). This erosional event records a regional, terminal-Bajocian (ca. 166 Ma), uplift event which interrupted the protracted subsidence of the Western Peruvian trough (Hosmer, 1959). In the Marcona
177
178
90 Ma
90 Ma
Turonian
Late
Cenomanian
Coastal Batholith (80- < 109 Ma)

Mc
Main Early Alteration Main magnetite Magnetite-sulfide polymetaalic stage stage sulfide stage Albiteactinolite alteration K-Fe metasomatism Actinolite alteration Magnetitesulfide alteration
Cu mineraliz ation
RaulCondestable La CandelariaPunta del Cobre Mantoverde
Marcona Mina Justa

Mc Mc
Other Andean IOCG Deposits

100 Ma
Tunga Andesi te
1
Ttn
3 5 3 4 5
Zr-2
Cretaceous
Early
Late
Jurassi c
Middle
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Mc Mc
100 Ma
Albian
Act
reseta ges
Amph
110 Ma
Act Mc
110 Ma
Bt
Ser
7 7
Ser
unconformity
Copara Formation
120 Ma
Aptian
Bella Union complex
120 Ma
2
Zr-1
Barremian
6
Ttn
130 Ma
130 Ma
Yauca Formation
Hauterivian
Valanginian
Mc(+ Ab)
140 Ma
140 Ma
Berriasian
CHEN ET AL.
178
Act Trm Act Act Trm Phl
Tithonian
150 Ma
150 Ma
Kimme ridgian
Oxfordian
160 Ma
Bt
Upper Rio Jahuay Formation Grande Formation
Callovian
Zr-1 : from postore dacite Zr-2 : from quartz-monzonite, monzonite and tonalite Other minerals are from hydrothermal stages
160 Ma
Bathonian
unconformity
U-Pb Ar/Ar K-Ar Re-Os

Stage M-III
Phl
170 Ma
Bajocian
170 Ma
Cum
Aalenian
Cum
1- de Haller et al., 2006 2- Pop et al., 2000 3- Ullrich and Clark, 1999 4- Mathur et al., 2002 5- Marschik and Sollner, 2006 6- Gelcich et al., 2002 7- Vila et al., 1996
Stage J-II
180 Ma
180 Ma
Age
Period
Epoch
Stratigraphy
Intrusiions
Stage M-I
Stage M-IV
Stage M-V
Stage J-I
Stage J-III
Stage J-V
Stage J-VI
Marcona deposit
Mina Justa sub-district
FIG. 17. Laser-induced 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages for Marcona and Mina Justa alteration and mineralization stages. Isotopic ages for other major Andean IOCG deposits are shown for comparison.
on
te n
NE
trac t io n
?
ex
co n
r?
con trac tio n
Not to Scale
Not to Scale
Fau lt
at er ?
Se
?
Pist a
Se
?
?
aw
at er
aw
aw ate
Se
ate r
Se
Sea floor ?
aw
Pista Fa ult
Ext (we ens io ak n )
Erosio n surfa ce
Seawater ?
Unconformity
Unconfor m
ity?
ul
Fa
Fa
ul t
io
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tic io
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Re pe
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Marcona
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0 Lower Rio Grande Formation 1 2 Km
ci on
Vertical Section Plan View 154- 159 Ma Marcona polymetallic sulfide mineraliz ation Mina Justa albite-actinolite alteration
Con (we tractio n a k)
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s ti
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Marcona
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Pista Fault
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Vertical Section Plan View 171 Ma Precursor magnetite-phlogopite mineraliz ation NE

ten
N Tre in s
Con tr (we actio n ak)
he t ar a Li zo bra ne s
ca. 17 7 Ma Precursor alteration

s ti on
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Vertical Section
Plan View
N
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Hydrothermal alteration
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magma
Initial small magnetite orebodies
164- 166 Ma uplift and erosion

Vertical Section Plan View
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Tre sh i nt ea a r z Lib o n ra e s
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159- 162 Ma Vertical Section Plan View Marcona magnetite and sulfide mineralliz ation
Erosion surface
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e sh i nt ea a r z Li b o n ra e s
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FIG. 18. Graphic depicting of the evolution of the Marcona deposit.
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Vertical Section Plan View ca. 14 2 Ma Mina Justa early K-metasomatism SE

Mina Justa
Tr sh ei n ea ta r z Lib on r a e s
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a F au lt
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Small stocks of 3 km Coastal Batholith (80 - 109 Ma)
CHEN ET AL.
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Canete Basin
F au
in
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Pist
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Detac h me
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Fa
nt fau lt
et ic io Re p
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nt ra ct io
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Fa
Tr Fa ei n ul ta t S Li y s b ra te s m
ul ts
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Coastal Batholith ( 10 9 Ma) Copara Formation (110- 125 Ma)
Basi nal brine (connate water) Yauca Formation (125- 145 Ma) Jahuay Formation (146- 155 Ma)
2 Km
FIG. 19. Graphic depicting of the evolution of the Mina Justa deposit (Mareona orebodies omitted).
co
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Marcona
Det ach me nt
s ta fa
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fa ul t?
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ul
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M in a
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Tr Fa ei n ul ta t S Li ys b ra te s m
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Marcona
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Vertical Section Plan View 110 Ma Mina Justa ? Erosional surface ? Mina Justa actinolite-magnetite alteration E
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s
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Vertical Section Plan View 101- 104 Ma Mina Justa ? Erosional surface ? Mina Justa magnetite-pyrite alteration E
? Erosi e?
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Vertical Section
Pista Actinolite alteration Fa ult (109 Ma) Mina Justa magnetite-pyrite bodies and potassic alteration Inferred intrusions below Mina Justa mine 2 Km 1 0 Upper Rio Grande
Formation andesite
95- 99M a
Meteoric water
Plan View
? Erosional surface ?
Mina Justa Cu mineraliz ation
Mina Justa
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area, uplift was accommodated by the predominantly reverse, east-northeasttrending Repeticin faults, which developed along the main linear array of the earlier Pista faults as a result of east-southeastwest-northwest contraction, probably as a response to major sinistral transcurrent displacement on the Treinta Libras fault system to the northeast (Figs. 2, 18C). Following the uplift and erosion, the late Bathonian-Oxfordian (ca. 155164 Ma) submarine upper Ro Grande Formation volcanic and volcanosedimentary units accumulated within a newly developed rift contiguous with the continental margin. Magnetite and the subsequent sulfide mineralization at Marcona were emplaced along the Repeticin faults during accumulation of the upper Ro Grande Formation from ca. 162 Ma (Fig. 18D). (5) Polymetallic sulfide mineralization at Marcona and early albite-actinolite alteration at Mina Justa, 154159 Ma (Fig. 18E) During the main base-metal sulfide stage in the Marcona deposit there was a decreased deposition of pyrrhotite and a marked increase in pyrite and chalcopyrite, particularly in the Mina 11 orebody. Sphalerite is abundant in the Mina 14 orebody, where it is associated with minor galena. Polymetallic sulfide mineralization accompanied continued crystallization of calcic amphiboles, both as pervasive alteration zones and as veins, but there was also a major increase in calcite deposition, commonly in cavities in vuggy magnetite. The magnetite-free and sulfide-dominated stage M-V assemblages formed in a relatively reduced (pyrite-pyrrhotite fO2 buffer) and possibly cooler environment. Stage M-V calcic amphiboles from the Mina 3 and Mina 5 orebodies yield acceptable Ar/Ar age plateaus in the range of 156.2 to 158.5 Ma, which implies that intense hydrothermal activity at Marcona, initiated following the ca. 164 to 166 Ma uplift event at the Bajocian-Bathonian boundary, persisted for ca. 5 m.y., until the termination of andesitic volcanism in the extensional marginal rift (Fig. 18E). The ages of 154.3 and 157.3 Ma for two stage J-I actinolites from Mina Justa indicate that stage J-I hydrothermal alteration of andesitic host rocks, the albite-actinolite (Na-Ca) assemblage recording Na metasomatism, was here initiated in the upper Ro Grande Formation simultaneously with the polymetallic sulfide and/ or magnetite mineralization in the lower Ro Grande Formation and the Marcona Formation at Marcona (Fig. 18E). (6) Potassic metasomatism in the Mina Justa area, 142 Ma (Fig. 19A) This probably weak Tithonian-Berriasian alteration event is recorded by a microcline from an andesite of the upper Ro Grande Formation. The structural context of the potassic alteration is uncertain, but it is likely that it was focused by faulting related to renewed movement on the Treinta Libras fault system to the northeast (Figs. 2, 19A). By ca. 142 Ma, Jahuay Formation volcanic activity had apparently terminated (Caldas, 1978) and no potentially parental intrusive bodies have been recognized in the immediate area. Injoque (1985), however, reports whole-rock K-Ar dates of 137.4 3 and 136.4 3 Ma for two basic dykes in the Marcona mine area, evidence for an otherwise undocumented Neocomian magmatic event. The barren K metasomatism may have been a response
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either to fluid expulsion resulting from continued or renewed detachment faulting along the southwest margin of the evolving Jahuay basin, comparable to that documented by Chapin and Lindley (1986) and Roddy et al. (1988), or to latestTithonian inversion of the basin. (7) Actinolite-diopside-magnetite alteration at Mina Justa, ca. 110 Ma (Fig. 19B) This early Albian Ca-metasomatism with minor magnetite development is recorded by stage J-III coarse-grained actinolite which cements clasts of the 142 Ma K-feldspar-magnetite alteration assemblage. This age coincides with the early stages of emplacement of the Coastal batholith in the Acar area to the east (Fig. 2), i.e., 109 4 Ma, and is contemporaneous with biotitic alteration at the Jahuay Formation-hosted Pampa del Pongo magnetite prospect (Hawkes et al., 2002; G. Lester, pers. commun., 2007). By the late Albian, accumulation of the probably Aptian to early Albian, dominantly clastic Copara Formation had probably ceased in the Caete basin (Caldas, 1978); the closest outcrop of this unit is ~12 to 15 km east of Mina Justa (Fig. 19B). Further, the hypabyssal intrusion of the andesitic Bella Unin Complex (Caldas, 1978), extensively exposed north and east of Mina Justa, probably significantly antedated mineralization. (8) Hematite-calcite mineralization at Mina Justa This now covert, undated, stage, not illustrated in Figure 19, records the incursion of oxidized, CO2-rich fluids separating the relatively reduced, magnetite-rich stages J-III (110 Ma) and J-V (104 Ma). Comparable oscillations in fO2 are characteristic of the IOCG environment (e.g., Pop et al., 2000), evidence for the involvement of multiple hydrothermal fluids. This represents the initial deposition of calcite at Mina Justa. No sulfides were precipitated in stage IV, although the hematite-calcite assemblage is identical to that of the ore-forming stage J-VI. Because depositional conditions in these stages were probably similar, we infer that reduced sulfur was not present in significant abundance at stage J-IV. (9) Magnetite and Cu sulfide mineralization at Mina Justa, 95104 Ma (Fig. 19C, D) Four Ar/Ar dates for microcline record the major events which generated the Mina Justa orebodies, defining a protracted Albian-to-Cenomanian history of hydrothermal activity. Thus, magnetite-pyrite-quartzdominated assemblages assigned to stage J-V give ages of 103.7 and 101.5 Ma, significantly postdating the ca. 110 Ma stage J-III actinolitic alteration. These thermal events apparently also affected the Marcona deposit, in which stage M-III microclines were locally reset at 101109 Ma. Feldspathic alteration envelopes to chalcopyrite-calcite veins representing the main, stage J-VI Cu mineralization formed at 99.1 Ma, and terminal, late-stage J-VI microcline veins associated with minor chalcopyrite-calcite veins record the apparent termination of sulfide deposition at ca. 95 Ma (Table 4). Numerous authors (e.g., Jaillard et al., 2000; Oyarzun et al., 2003) have emphasized the geodynamic impact of the reorganization of plate interactions in late-Neocomian time, probably triggered by development of a mid-Pacific superplume (Larson, 1991). Coupling of the converging plates,
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with a northeast vector, ended a long period of orthogonal extension and sinistral transtension along the central South American littoral, and gave rise to dextral transtension and the formation of mid-Cretaceous basins (Polliand et al., 2005). The subsequent increasing plate coupling resulted in uplift and basin inversion, accompanied by emplacement of the earliest, ca. 109 Ma, plutons of the Arequipa segment of the Coastal batholith (Vidal et al., 1990; Atherton, 1990) and the associated magnetite-actinolite (-biotite) alteration at Pampa de Pongo and Mina Justa. In the Marcona area, dextral transtension on the Treinta Libras fault system (Pope, 2003) generated the east-northeaststriking Mina Justa normal faults which controlled the emplacement of both magnetite lenses and Cu orebodies (Fig. 19C, D). However, Cu mineralization at Mina Justa significantly postdated magnetite-pyrite alteration. The Upper Cretaceous Tunga andesite developed during or after Mina Justa mineralization and was emplaced mainly along the younger Huaca faults. It is unlikely that exotic, basin-derived fluids contributed to the early high-temperature (~600C: Chen, 2008) magnetitepyrite alteration stage at Mina Justa, despite the proximity of the Caete basin to a well-developed fault system cutting the Ro Grande Formation (Fig. 19C) which could have served as a pathway for fluid circulation. The high-T, Cu-barren, magnetite-pyrite assemblage may be evidence for either a Cupoor magmatic fluid or, less probably, the suppression of Cu sulfide deposition by high temperatures (Hezarkhani et al., 1999). During further compression and basin inversion, exotic, possibly basinal fluids (Chen, 2008), are inferred to have invaded the Jurassic andesite succession along the deep detachment fault depicted in Figure 19C and D. However, these exotic fluids were plausibly driven by heat from deepseated intrusions, represented by the dioritic stocks in the Mina Justa area, and the possibility of mixing with magmatic fluids cannot be excluded. Ore-forming fluids rose along the Mina Justa fault system and replaced the stage J-V magnetitepyrite bodies (Fig. 19D). The coexistence of hematite with bornite-chalcocite-chalcopyrite assemblages indicates a relatively low T and P (i.e., <500C and <1 kbar: Hemley et al., 1992) and a medium to high pH (calcite stable) environment for Cu mineralization. This mineralization event is unrecorded in the Marcona deposit, and the stage J-VI hydrothermal system was therefore restricted areally to the margin of the Caete basin. Conclusions The Middle Jurassic Marcona Fe and mid-Cretaceous Mina Justa Cu deposits, although both controlled by major fault systems transecting the Mesozoic, dominantly andesitic arcs of the Cordillera de la Costa, developed in contrasted tectonomagmatic environments. Thus, the swarm of major magnetite orebodies at Marcona formed within an extensional rift during the eruption of the upper-Ro Grande Formation arc, following a brief episode of uplift and erosion, whereas the weak superimposed Cu-Zn (Pb) sulfide assemblages were emplaced during the terminal stage of arc development. Mineralization was focused both within the shallowmarine volcanic pile and in the underlying Paleozoic metaclastic basement, and was associated directly with small hypabyssal dacite porphyry plugs rather than with granitoid
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plutons. Early hydrothermal alteration (stage M-IA: Mg-Fe metasomatism) and weak magnetite mineralization (stage MIB) developed up to 300 m beneath the ocean floor, 9 to 15 m.y. prior to the main magnetite emplacement, precisely contemporaneous with the intial development of the arc. No other central Andean IOCG deposit displays a comparably intimate relationship with shallow marine volcanism, although the large El Laco cluster of magnetite orebodies (Park, 1961; Naslund et al., 2002) may be regarded as a Pliocene analog, similarly associated with andesitic volcanism and shallow dacitic intrusion, albeit in an entirely subaerial setting. The Mina Justa Cu (-Ag, Au) prospect is, however, representative of the small number of large Cu-rich IOCG centers in the central Andes. Salient features include the following: emplacement in significantly older, largely volcanic strata rather than in broadly synmineralization granitoids; the localization of sulfide mineralization, dominated by hydrothermal breccia and stockwork, by older, sulfide-deficient and tenuously related, magnetite bodies; and the channeling of brines by regionally extensive fault systems accommodating the contractional inversion of arc-parallel volcano-sedimentary basins. The pre-cordilleran Late Triassic through mid-Cretaceous central Andean orogen repeatedly generated tectonomagmatic and shallow marine stratigraphic environments, fostering both magnetite-dominant, Kiruna-type, and Cu-rich IOCG mineralization. Hydrothermal activity in the MarconaMina Justa district occurred episodically over a period of ca. 80 m.y. and Cu mineralization at Mina Justa is shown to have been emplaced at least 60 m.y. after magnetite deposition at Marcona. Moreover, at Mina Justa, the Cu mineralization occurred betweem 5 and 10 m.y. after magnetite-pyrite formation. The protracted history of hydrothermal activity in the Marcona district is matched by those of other major IOCG centers in the Andes. In the La Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district, a U-Pb zircon age for intramineralization dacite indicates that Cu (-Au) mineralization had commenced by 125 Ma (Pop et al., 2000), whereas the major Cu-Au orebodies were emplaced between ca. 115 (Ullrich and Clark, 1999; Mathur et al., 2002) and 112 Ma (Ullrich and Clark, 1999; Marschik and Fontbot, 2001). In the wider Mantoverde district, mineralization was initiated at 131 to 126 Ma, defined by a U-Pb isochron age for apatite-magnetite from the Carmen iron deposit and a U-Pb age for titanite from Mantoverde (Gelcich et al., 2002, 2005), but K-Ar ages of sericite from Mantoverde (Vila et al., 1996) and 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of actinolite from the Todos Los Santos Cu-Au veins and the Jerusalem magnetite-apatite deposit may indicate that IOCG activity persisted at least to 117 Ma. Acknowledgments Field and laboratory research was funded by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada grants to A.H.C and T.K.K. Chariot Resources, Shougang Hierro Per SA, and Rio Tinto Mining and Exploration Ltd. generously provided unstinting logistical support for the field work. Kerry Klassen was particularly helpful in the laboratories of the Queens University Facility for Isotope Research (QFIR). Peter Jones, Carleton University, is thanked for the electron microprobe analyses. Joan Charbonneau uncomplainingly prepared numerous versions of the manuscript. The authors
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greatly appreciate the comments from two Economic Geology reviewers, Antoine de Haller and Roger Skirrow, which considerably improved the quality of this paper.
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APPENDIX Analytical Techniques techniques Mineral separates were hand picked, washed in acetone, dried, wrapped in aluminum foil and stacked in an irradiation capsule with similar-aged samples and neutron flux monitors (Fish Canyon Tuff sanidine, 28.02 Ma (Renne et al., 1998)). The samples were irradiated on July 4 through July 6, 2006, at the McMaster Nuclear Reactor in Hamilton, Ontario, for 90 MWH, with a neutron flux of approx. 3 1016 neutrons/cm2. Analyses (n = 57) of 19 neutron flux monitor positions produced errors of <0.5 percent in the J value. The samples were analyzed on July 25August 1 and August 1314, 2006, at the Noble Gas Laboratory, Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada. The mineral separates were step-heated at incrementally higher powers in the defocused beam of a 10W CO2 laser (New Wave Research MIR10) until fused. The gas evolved from each step was analyzed by a VG5400 mass spectrometer equipped with an ion-counting electron multiplier. All measurements were corrected for
40Ar/ 39Ar
total system blank, mass spectrometer sensitivity, mass discrimination, radioactive decay during and subsequent to irradiation, as well as interfering Ar from atmospheric contamination and the irradiation of Ca, Cl, and K. The plateau and correlation ages were calculated using Isoplot ver. 3.09 (Ludwig, 2003). Errors are quoted at the 2sigma (95% confidence) level and are propagated from all sources except mass spectrometer sensitivity and age of the flux monitor. The best statistically justified plateau and plateau age were picked based on the following criteria: (1) three or more contiguous steps making up more than 50 percent of the 39Ar; (2) probability of fit of the weighted mean age greater than 5 percent; (3) slope of the error-weighted line through the plateau ages equals zero at 5 percent confidence; (4) ages of the two outermost steps on a plateau are not significantly different from the weighted-mean plateau age (at 1.8 six or more steps only); (5) Outermost two steps on either side of a plateau must not have nonzero slopes with the same sign (at 1.8 nine or more steps only).
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2010 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. Economic Geology, v. 105, pp.

3 Chariot 4 Shougang 5 Rio

Submitted: May 1, 2009 Accepted: December 23, 2009

Mina Justa Cobrepampa Acari

Pacific Pacific Ocean

Precambrian (includes some Paleozoic) Metamorphic Basement

San Juan Fig 2

Licona Santiago Valpara so Cerro Pelado Morritos

EVOLUTION OF THE GIANT MARCONA-MINA JUSTA IOCG DISTRICT, PERU

Rio Grande Canyon Pampa Las Galgas

Copara Formation (110-125 Ma) (Fossi l age range) (1000 m)

Shales, mudstones and sandstones

(125-146 Ma) Formation (Fossi l age range) (1500 m)

Jahuay Formation (1000 m)

Rio Grande Formation (4000 m)

Upper Rio Grande Formation

Mina Justa Cu orebodies

Lower Rio Grande Formation

(Cerritos Formation at Marcona)

Marcona Formation (1500 m)

San Nicolas Batholith (425 4Ma)

San Juan Formation (3000 m)

Tillites with dolomites near top

EVOLUTION OF THE GIANT MARCONA-MINA JUSTA IOCG DISTRICT, PERU

Upper Rio Grande Formation

Lower Rio Grande Formation

Upper Rio Grande Formation

K-Ar age 164 Ma

Callovian-Oxfordian 151- 161 Ma

Lower Rio Grande Formation

Marcona Formation Tuff Mina Justa Cu-orebodies Inferred boundary

Conglomerate Volcanic Breccias Inferred unconformity

Minas 2-3-4 Marcona Fm. 399 58.5 0.17 3.55

Mina 5 Marcona Fm. 190 60.2 0.06 2.57

Mina 7 Marcona Fm. 18 57.3 0.06 3.10

Minas 9-10 Marcona Fm. 110 58.1 0.11 2.51

Mina 14 Marcona Fm. 110 57.0 0.08 2.97 0.5

Mina 11 Marcona Fm. 35 54.4 0.45 3.51

Mancha N-13 Ro Grande Fm. 224 41.9 0.04 2.86 -

Cu, Zn, and S grades of hypogene ore; Pb grade is not available

EVOLUTION OF THE GIANT MARCONA-MINA JUSTA IOCG DISTRICT, PERU

Neogene to Quarternary sediments Cenozoic

Coastal Batholith Tunga Andesites

Porphyritic andesite dikes

Lower Paleozoic Precambrian

Marcona Fm (metasediments) Arequipa Massif (Gneisses, K-rich Granite, migmatites)

600 550 500 450 400

Repeticion Faults Mina Justa Fault

Pit outline (2004 )

Sampled drillc ores

Dacite magnetite orebody

Pit outline (2004)

Repeticion Fault (early) Repeticion Fault (late) Mina Justa Fault

EVOLUTION OF THE GIANT MARCONA-MINA JUSTA IOCG DISTRICT, PERU

Albite -scapolite alteration Stage M-II

Magnetite stage Stage M-III

Magnetite-sulfide stage Stage M-IV

Polymetallic sulfide mineralization Stage M-V

Late veins Stage M-VI I

* only in host rocks

FIG. 8. Alteration and mineralization paragenesis of the Marcona magnetite deposit.

EVOLUTION OF THE GIANT MARCONA-MINA JUSTA IOCG DISTRICT, PERU

Kfs (Stage M-III)