Socio-economc background

INTRODUCTION

it is your economic background, ie...did you come from poor roots, middle class, or upper class. only in addition to how much money your grandparents and parents may or may not have had, it takes into account social (society) reasons as to why your economic background is such...so for example, not to imply they are any worse off as a family, but a poor family coming from the inner city has slightly different reasons as to why they are poor compared to a poor family in the mountains in Virginia. Both are considered poor...face a lot of the same problems, but technically when the reasons are broken down, it can be seen they are 'poor' for different reasons. Same can be said at the other end of the spectrum...growing up were you middle or upper class in a nice neighborhood going to good schools? Was it your family that had money, or were you raised modest with good work ethic and the drive to make your own millions...old money versus new money. These things impact and are impacted by your social surroundings For example: a white-collar worker might live in the suburbs and work in a business district. Socio-economic group might be an affluent middle to upper class 'status' - closely associated with income and education. Further, a blue-collar worker might be viewed as a middle to lower class 'status' - - - get the idea?

Development & standardization of a scale to measure socio-economic status in urban & rural communities in India
Background & objectives: The commonly used available scales for
measurement of socio-economic status (SES) with some cross regional applicability are old and have lost their relevance. There is a need for the development of a valid and reliable instrument for measurement of SES in rural and urban communities in India. The present study was undertaken to develop a cross regionally applicable scale for the purpose of enlisting true measures of socio-economic items applicable in multilingual, multicultural, multireligious, setting of the country.

Methods:

For developing the scale, seven indicators (house, materials possession, education, occupation,monthly income, land, social participation and understanding), presumably determining the socioeconomicstatus were selected. These indicators were named as profiles. Thus, initially the scale had seven profiles and every profile contained five alternatives. This instrument was prepared on a 10-point scale. Weightage system of scoring (varying from 2 to 10) was followed from first to sixth profile whilethe additive pattern of scoring was followed in seventh profile. The final version of the scale was arrived at through three trial administrations on rural and urban families. The basis of selection of the familiesfor the first two trials was stratified random. The validity and reliability of the scale was established through a defined visual analogue scale (VAS) and test-retest methods.

Results: Both the initial version as well as the final version of the scale for
the measurement of SES of incumbents had seven profiles. The difference between the two versions was in terms of contents and range of items in different categories of SES. The final version was arrived at through field

trials and suggestions of the experts. The reliability of the scale was high with a correlation coefficient of 0.998.

Interpretation & conclusion: The new scale appears to be a valid

and reliable instrument for the assessment of socio-economic status of the families/individuals from urban as well as rural areas in India.

Meaning of Commitment
Commitment means a conscious choice to do something. Not just when I feel like it do it regularly, as a matter of principle. That means Im committed to working out. Ive been good about that commitment. Being committed to rationality means I will choose to focus, to think, and to use reason in all areas of my life. Commitment to my health means I choose the things that contribute to it. Right now, its developing the habit of not eating crap. I call it White stuff refined bread, flour, starches, sugar, etc. It doesnt mean I can never have a treat or a snack, but I will not just unthinkingly grab a couple of pieces of candy every time I walk past my bosss office. I might have a piece or two occasionally, but most of the time when I feel like it, I will remember this commitment to my health, and I will decide not to have the candy. That shows commitment to consciousness and rationality. These are standing orders to myself.

Adjustment

Adjustment (from late Latin ad-juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from Justus, right) means regulating, adapting or settling in a variety of contexts:

Adjustment (law) has several meanings; many relate to insurance, contracts, or the resolution of disputes. In engineering, mathematics, and geodesy, the optimal parameter estimation of a mathematical model so as to best fit a data set. The most important method is the least squares adjustment, found by Carl Friedrich Gauss. In metrology, the set of operations carried out on an instrument in order that it provides given indications corresponding to given values of the measurand. In psychology, the behavioural process of balancing conflicting needs, or needs against obstacles in the environment. Humans and animals regularly do this, for example, when they are stimulated by their physiological state to seek food, they eat (if possible) to reduce their hunger and thus adjust to the hunger stimulus. Adjustment disorder occurs when there is an inability to make a normal adjustment to some need or stress in the environment. In statistics, it is the compensation for confounding variables

Absenteeism

Definition
Voluntary non attendance at work, without valid reason. Absenteeism means either habitual evasion of work, or willful absence as in a strike action. It does not include involuntary or occasional absence due to valid causes, or reasons beyond one's control, such as accidents or sickness. See also attendance management.

Meaning: Habitual absence from work Classified under: Nouns denoting acts or actions Hypernyms ("absenteeism" is a kind of...): absence (failure to be present.

Unit- 2

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

Personnel management can be defined as obtaining, using and maintaining a satisfied workforce. It is a significant part of management concerned with employees at work and with their relationship within the organization.

According to Flippo, Personnel management is the planning, organizing, compensation, integration and maintainance of people for the purpose of contributing to organizational, individual and societal goals. According to Brech, Personnel Management is that part which is primarily concerned with human resource of organization. Nature of Personnel Management 1. Personnel management includes the function of employment, development and compensationThese functions are performed primarily by the personnel management in consultation with other departments. 2. Personnel management is an extension to general management. It is concerned with promoting and stimulating competent work force to make their fullest contribution to the concern. 3. Personnel management exist to advice and assist the line managers in personnel matters.Therefore, personnel department is a staff department of an organization. 4. Personnel management lays emphasize on action rather than making lengthy schedules, plans, work methods. The problems and grievances of people

at work can be solved more effectively through rationale personnel policies. 5. It is based on human orientation. It tries to help the workers to develop their potential fully to the concern. 6. It also motivates the employees through its effective incentive plans so that the employees provide fullest co-operation. 7. Personnel management deals with human resources of a concern. In context to human resources, it manages both individual as well as blue- collar workers. Role of Personnel Manager Personnel manager is the head of personnel department. He performs both managerial and operative functions of management. His role can be summarized as :
1.

2.

Personnel manager provides assistance to top management- The top management are the people who decide and frame the primary policies of the concern. All kinds of policies related to personnel or workforce can be framed out effectively by the personnel manager. He advices the line manager as a staff specialist- Personnel manager acts like a staff

3.

4.

5.

advisor and assists the line managers in dealing with various personnel matters. As a counsellor,- As a counsellor, personnel manager attends problems and grievances of employees and guides them. He tries to solve them in best of his capacity. Personnel manager acts as a mediator- He is a linking pin between management and workers. He acts as a spokesman- Since he is in direct contact with the employees, he is required to act as representative of organization in committees appointed by government. He represents company in training programmes.

Functions of Personnel Management

Follwoing are the four functions of Personnel Management:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Manpower Planning Recruitment Selection Training and Development

. Types of Evaluations.
A. General personnel management evaluations cover all areas of a manager's personnel management responsibilities (i.e., position management, position description and classification accuracy, staffing practices, performance

management, discipline, awards, delegations of authority, employee development, labor-management relations, etc.). B. Special personnel management evaluations cover one or more personnel management topics indepth and/or may focus on organizational or systemic problems on a bureau, region or division wide basis. C. Program reviews cover all areas of personnel management and administration which are the responsibility of a USGS servicing personnel office

Scope of Evaluations.
A. Evaluations must include sufficient regulatory and procedural review to assess compliance with established personnel regulations and proper use of delegated personnel authorities. Accordingly, as a minimum, all general evaluations and program reviews will cover the following regulatory personnel management topical areas: classification and position management, staffing practices, performance management, discipline, awards, employee development, labor-management relations, delegations of authority, and maintenance of personnel records. USGS personnel management evaluation guidelines will be used to evaluate each of the mandatory personnel management evaluation topics. The guidelines incorporate the Department of the Interior personnel management evaluation standards of adequacy, and OPM, DOI and USGS policies and procedures. Separate guidelines have

been developed for general evaluations and for personnel office program reviews. B. General evaluations will include coverage of nonregulatory personnel management areas such as communication, morale, organizational effectiveness, etc. C. General evaluations and program reviews will address areas of emphasis as established by the OPM, the Department's Office of Personnel, the Bureau Personnel Officer, and/or Division Chiefs. D. General evaluations and program reviews will include an assessment of internal controls related to personnel management. Assessment of these controls will be done in conformance with A-123 internal control review guidance issued annually by the Director of Personnel and the Bureau Personnel Officer

UNIT-4

JOB EVALUATON & ITS METHODS

Job Evaluation: Concept

Job evaluation is a systematic way of determining the value/worth of a job in relation to other jobs in an organisation. It tries to make a systematic comparison between jobs to assess their relative worth for the purpose of establishing a rational pay structure. Job evaluation needs to be differentiated from job analysis. Job analysis is a systematic way of gathering information about a job. Every job evaluation method requires at least some basic job analysis in order to provide factual information about the jobs concerned. Thus, job evaluation begins with job analysis and ends at that point where the worth of a job is ascertained for achieving pay equity between jobs.

Job Evaluation Methods

There are four basic methods of job evaluation: (1) ranking, (2) classification, (3) factor comparison.(4) point method. While many variations of these methods exist in practice, the three basic approaches are described here.
(1). Ranking Method

Perhaps the simplest method of job evaluation is the ranking method. According to this method, jobs are arranged from highest to lowest, in order of their value or merit to the organization. Jobs can also be arranged according to the relative difficulty in performing them. The jobs are examined as a whole rather than on the basis of important factors in the job; the job at the top of the list has the highest value and obviously the job at the bottom of the list will have the lowest value. Jobs are usually ranked in

each department and then the department rankings are combined to develop an organizational ranking. The following table is a hypothetical illustration of ranking of jobs. The variation in payment of salaries depends on the variation of the nature of the job performed by the employees. The ranking method is simple to understand and practice and it is best suited for a small organisation. Its simplicity however works to its disadvantage in big organisations because rankings are difficult to develop in a large, complex organisation. Moreover, this kind of ranking is highly subjective in nature and may offend many employees. Therefore, a more scientific and fruitful way of job evaluation is called for.

(2) Classification Method

According to this method, a predetermined number of job groups or job classes are established and jobs are assigned to these classifications. This method places groups of jobs into job classes or job grades. Separate classes may include office, clerical, managerial, personnel, etc. Following is a brief description of such a classification in an office. a. Class I - Executives: Further classification under this category may be Office Manager, Deputy office manager, Office superintendent, Departmental supervisor, etc. b. Class II - Skilled workers: Under this category may come the Purchasing assistant, Cashier, Receipts clerk, etc.

c. Class III - Semiskilled workers: Under this category may come Stenotypists, Machine-operators, Switchboard operator etc. d. Class IV - Semiskilled workers: This category comprises Daftaris, File clerks, Office boys, etc. The job classification method is less subjective when compared to the earlier ranking method. The system is very easy to understand and acceptable to almost all employees without hesitation. One strong point in favour of the method is that it takes into account all the factors that a job comprises. This system can be effectively used for a variety of jobs. The weaknesses of the job classification method are: Even when the requirements of different jobs differ, they may be combined into a single category, depending on the status a job carries. It is difficult to write all-inclusive descriptions of a grade. The method oversimplifies sharp differences between different jobs and different grades. When individual job descriptions and grade descriptions do not match well, the evaluators have the tendency to classify the job using their subjective judgements. (3). Factor Comparison Method A more systematic and scientific method of job evaluation is the factor comparison method. Though it is the most

complex method of all, it is consistent and appreciable. Under this method, instead of ranking complete jobs, each job is ranked according to a series of factors. These factors include mental effort, physical effort, skill needed, responsibility, supervisory responsibility, working conditions and other such factors (for instance, know-how, problem solving abilities, accountability, etc.). Pay will be assigned in this method by comparing the weights of the factors required for each job, i.e., the present wages paid for key jobs may be divided among the factors weighted by importance (the most important factor, for instance, mental effort, receives the highest weight). In other words, wages are assigned to the job in comparison to its ranking on each job factor. The steps involved in factor comparison method may be briefly stated thus: Select key jobs (say 15 to 20), representing wage/salary levels across the organisation. The selected jobs must represent as many departments as possible. Find the factors in terms of which the jobs are evaluated (such as skill, mental effort, responsibility, physical effort, working conditions, etc.). Rank the selected jobs under each factor (by each and every member of the job evaluation committee) independently. Assign money value to each level of each factor (example: consider problem solving is one of the factor,

what level of problem solving is required {basic, intermediate or advance}) and determine the wage rates for each key job. The wage rate for a job is apportioned along the identified factors. All other jobs are compared with the list of key jobs and wage rates are determined. An example of how the factor comparison method works is given below: After the wage rate for a job is distributed along the identified and ranked factors, all other jobs in the department are compared in terms of each factor. Suppose the job of a 'painter' is found to be similar electrician in skill (15), fitter in mental effort (10), welder in physical effort (12) cleaner in responsibility! (6) and labourer in working conditions (4). The wage rate for this job would be (15+10+12+6+4) is47.j (4). Point Method This method is widely used currently. Here, jobs are expressed in terms of key factors. Points are assigned to each factor after prioritising each factor in order of importance. The points are summed up to determine the wage rate for the job. Jobs with similar point totals are placed in similar pay grades. The procedure involved may be explained thus: a. Select key jobs. Identify the factors common to all the identified jobs such as skill, effort, responsibility, etc.

b. Divide each major factor into a number of sub factors. Each sub factor is defined and expressed clearly in the order of importance, preferably along a scale. The most frequent factors employed in point systems are (i) Skill (key factor); Education and training required, Breadth/depth of experience required, Social skills required, Problem-solving skills, Degree of discretion/use of judgement, Creative thinking (ii) Responsibility/Accountability: Breadth of responsibility, Specialised responsibility, Complexity of the work, Degree of freedom to act, Number and nature of subordinate staff, Extent of accountability for equipment/plant, Extent of accountability for product/materials; (iii) Effort: Mental demands of a job, Physical demands of a job, Degree of potential stress The educational requirements (sub factor) under the skill (key factor) may be expressed thus in the order of importance. c. Find the maximum number of points assigned to each job (after adding up the point values of all sub-factors of such a job). This would help in finding the relative worth ol a job. For instance, the maximum points assigned to an officer's job in a bank come to 540. The manager's job, after adding up key factors + sub factors points, may be getting a point value of say 650 from the job evaluation committee. This job is now priced at a higher level. d. Once the worth of a job in terms of total points is expressed, the points are converted into money values

keeping in view the hourly/daily wage rates. A wage survey is usually undertaken to collect wage rates of certain key jobs in the organisation.

UNIT- 5 WORKERS PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT

WORKERS PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT

Three groups of managerial decisions affect the workers of any industrial establishment and hence theworkers must have a say in it. (2)Economic decisions methods of manufacturing, automation, shutdown, lay-offs, and mergers. (3)Personnel decisions recruitment and selection, promotions, demotions, transfers, grievancesettlement, work distribution. (4)Social decisions hours of work, welfare measures, questions affecting work rules and conductof individual workers safety, health, and sanitation and noise control.P a r t i c i p a t i o n b a s i c a l l y means sharing the decision-making power with the lower ranks of t h e organization in an appropriate manner.

(1)Introduction:

Definitions

The concept of WPM is a broad and complex one. Depending on the socio-political environment andcultural conditions, the scope and contents of participation change.International Institute of Labour Studies: WPM is the participation resulting from the practiceswhich increase the scope for employees share of influence in decisionmaking at different tiers of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l hierarchy with concomitant (related) assumption of responsibility.

ILO:
Workers participation, may broadly be taken to cover all terms of association of workers andtheir representatives with the decisionmaking process, ranging from exchange of information,consultations, decisions and negotiations, to more institutionalized forms such as the presence of w o r k e r s member onmanagement or supervisory boards or even m a n a g e m e n t b y w o r k e r s themselves (as practiced in Yugoslavia). The main implications of workers participation in management as summarized by ILO:

(1)Workers have ideas which can be useful; (2)Workers may work more intelligently if they are informed about the reasons for and theintention of decisions that are taken in a participative atmosphere.

Objectives
According to Gosep, workers participation may be viewed as

(1)An instrument for increasing the efficiency of enterprises and establishing harmonious relations; (2)A device for developing social education for promoting solidarity among workers and for tapping human talents; (3)A means for achieving industrial peace and harmony which leads to higher productivity andincreased production; (4)A humanitarian act, elevating the status of a worker in the society;

(5)An ideological way of developing selfmanagement and promoting industrial democracy.

Other objectives of WPM can be cited as: (1)To improve the quality of working life (QWL) by allowing the workers greater influence andinvolvement in work and satisfaction obtained from work; and