Igor Kokcharov and Anatolii Lepikhin

8 WELDS
http://www.kokch.kts.ru/me/t8/index.html#
Igor Kokcharov and Anatolii Lepikhin
Welding is a method of joining two parts by melting and/or pressing them together. Welds are permanent joints of metals (iron, steels, aluminum alloys, titanium alloys) or plastic materials. Aluminum and steel cannot be melted together since they have different melting points (temperatures).
There are the following types of welds: A. butt-weld B. corner weld C. T-weld D. lap weld
Static and fatigue strength is highest for a lap-weld in comparison with other joints from the list. n forge welding, A, for steel chain manufacturing, two parts are heated and then hammered together. Gas welding, B, uses an oxy-acetylene flame to
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heat the metal and a rod of metallic filler material. In electric-arc welding, C the filler rod forms one electrode and the metal itself another. Electric current passes across the gap between the electrodes by arcing or sparking and melts the surfaces together. The electric current (ac or dc, alternating current or direct current) is stable with an amperage of 150 - 500 Amperes. Industrial power sources usually work with voltages between 22 - 36 Volts. Contrary to gas welding, electric-arc welding is used for thick pieces of metal and high temperature. If an electric current passes through two metal surfaces in close contact the temperature rises and melts the surfaces together known as spot welding or seam welding, D. This method is used in mass production.
There are the following types of butt-welds: A. without a gap B. with a gap C. with one-sided bevel D. with two-sided bevel A butt-weld without a gap is used if there is a guarantee of full melting. A butt-weld with a gap is used for thin-walled structures. Edge preparation guarantees full melting and improved quality of the joint. There are Y-, U- and X-shaped edge preparation. U-shaped edge preparation is used instead of X-shaped edge preparation for thick parts if it is not possible to weld from two sides. Joints can be welded in a single pass or by few passes.
Weld joining of thick tubes also involves edge preparation, B in contrary to thin-walled tubes, A. Additional casing, C can be used. Welds with a smooth transition correspond to a stronger structure. A great deal of skill is required to produce a reliable weld.
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Arc heat is expended during the melting of metal electrodes as it is in the heating of base parts. Approximate values of arc heat expended in shielded metal-arc welding: A. Dissipation into the neighboring environment - 20% B. Transition with molten drops - 26% C. Vaporization of electrode metal - 24% D. Absorption by base metal - 30%
Mechanical properties are directly related to the material structure of weld and base metal. Weld metal is comprised of the metals of electrode and molten edges of base parts. High temperature affects the structure of base metal. Grain size enlarges at boundaries of the weld joint - in the heat affected zone (HAZ). Large grains have relatively poor mechanical properties. Outside the HAZ grain size is the same as in the base metal. In molten weld metal the grains grow from colder parts of base metal.
Lower amounts of molten metal correspond to lower heat and smaller HAZ. HAZ is smaller for electron beam welding: A. Arc welding, butt-joint B. Electron beam welding, butt-joint C. Multi-layer arc welding, butt-joint
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D. Gas welding, build-up weld
For steel welds mechanical properties are usually highest at the weld. The hardness is lower in the weld.
Mechanical properties of a high-strength steel weld depend on carbon content in the material. Increase in strength corresponds to decrease in ductility (elongation is a measure of ductility).
Fast cooling, similar to quenching, could result in strength increase. Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increase with higher cooling rate.
There are special tests for weld joints. The welded specimen is tested until a crack first starts. The weld is stronger if it lies for a long time before a test.
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A large angle a characterizes the ductility of the weld joint. There are welded joints for which the angle could reach 180 .
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Passing through welds, inner forces meet obstacles on their path. They concentrate at the ends of weld. The force lines bend smoothly as they pass through the welds, lines cannot bend sharply.
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The figure shows a stress profile in the butt-weld. There is stress concentration in corners. Stress in the wider central section of weld doesn't exceed the nominal value.
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This stress pattern is typical for a welded joint. Sum of the area (force) under the curve must be equal to the sum of the area under the line corresponding to nominal value.
Nominal shear stress is twice as large as the shorter welds. Stress concentration is higher if rigidities of connected parts are different. Stress is higher in the beginning of the short weld.
Stress concentration depends on the surface shape, not inside geometry of the weld. The larger the angle q, the smaller the stress concentration factor. In order to fulfill these requirements, a special cutting operation is made. Fatigue strength of a machined joint is higher than the first one.
A large fraction of inner force goes through the end nugget in the row. The numbers indicate approximate values of the parameter.
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Stress concentration can be evaluated by stress concentration factor a which is equal to the ratio of maximum and nominal stresses.
s
The quality of weld depends on many factors: A. undercutting is caused by high amperage B. porosity is caused by fast travel or dirty material surfaces C. slag included in bead is caused by low amperage and short arc D. lack of fusion is caused by low amperage and improper edge preparation E. overlap is caused by electrode shaking Surface defects perpendicular to tensile force are usually more dangerous than an inner defect of the same size. Lack of fusion, D is the sharpest and the most dangerous defect. The quality of manual welding is usually less than that for other methods. Some imperfections that are not dangerous: A. Electroslag welding: 0.56 defects / 10 meters.
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B. Automated welding under flux: 2.5 defects / 10 meters. C. Electric arc manual welding: 35 defects / 10 meters.
A. Incomplete penetration B. Excess metal handing C. Curved weld D. Narrow weld at underside Incomplete penetration means that tensile force lines meet obstacles on their path, causing high stress concentration. Other defects from the list do not cause high stress concentration.
Better melting takes place if there is a gap between the parts of Tee-weld. Residual stresses and cracking are smaller in this situation.
A. Cracking: toe, longitudinal, transverse, and underbead cracks B. Incomplete fusion C. Undercutting and underfilling D. Surface damage: small droplets and arc strike (electrode touch) Cleaning the weld area prior ro welding improves the fusion of weld and base parts. The operation can guard against incomplete fusion, B. A surface defect E in the heat-affected zone can be considered the most dangerous defect in the Tee-joint.
Residual tensile stresses in the vertical plate is less than in the first instance. The second instance is poor for heavy welded construction, showing lack of ductility through the thickness of the material.
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Friction welding of steel bars. The bars are rotated relative to each other and squeezed together. A. Uniform weld is preferential B. High pressure or low speed C. Low pressure or high speed
Two defects can be considered as one if the distance between them is on the order of it's own size. The depth of the defect is more important than the length.
Unhomogenous heating causes local thermal expansion of metals. This is reflected in residual stress after cooling. Residual stress is a tensile stress in the center of a weld. Tensile stress in a weld is compensated by compressive stress in base metal.
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Weld metal is squeezed as it cools. During welding, edges move relative to each other, mostly perpendicular to the welding direction. Residual stress results in shrinkage of the structure.
The choice of welding sequence affects the distortion of the welded structure. If a welder
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uses opposite directions, the distortion is smaller.
If a weld is below the neutral axis the shape is concave up. If a weld is over the neutral axis the shape is concave down.
The angle b is small for small weld depths. The angle is not too large if the weld depth is equal to the thickness of the plate.
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A similar effect can be observed in a tee-joint. For thin plates the displacement caused by residual stress is rather large, it decreases as thickness increases.
Residual stress is at a maximum for a rigid structure with a large number of welds and with closed loops. The structures are shown in order of increasing rigidity.
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The residual stress decreases as annealing temperature increases. There are annealing procedures that can reduce residual stress to zero.
Strength of a welded joint depends on weld geometry and strength of materials. The minimum cross section of a weld is considered in strength calculations. Throat a is at a minimum. Throat is the distance from the root to the surface of a fillet weld. The throat of a fillet is a measure of the weld size. Critical force P for a lap joint using a 45 degree filet weld
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depends on allowable shear stress for the weld material t .

allowable
Bending stress is small if moment of inertia of the weld cross-section is large. The moment depends on the cross sectional area and it's distance from the neutral axis shown in the figure. The second example is three times stronger than the first. The tensile strength of a butt-joint is higher for the case with low stress concentration. Build-up welds are often produced to increase wear resistance, not tensile strength.
Spot resistance welding. The nugget is stronger under shear than in tension. Strength of nugget increases with thickness.
Contrary to uniform low-carbon steel plate, it's weld joint can have a brittle fracture mechanism: smaller critical stress at low temperature. Usually the temperature of brittle-
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ductile transition is below zero, ranging from -100 C to -40 C. Annealing increases the ductility of materials and prevents brittle fracture.
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Crack resistance characteristic - the critical value of stress intensity factor depends on test temperature. Usually the brittle fracture for base metal, weld and heat-affected zone are similar, lower limits are equivalent. The characteristic of ductile fracture (upper limit) is usually smaller in the welded zone.
Presence of oxygen in weld material affects the embrittlement of the material. High oxygen content corresponds to embrittlement (relatively high transition temperature).
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Fatigue strength is the strength of material under cyclic loading. It has unit of stress, [MPa]. Fatigue strength is usually two or more times less than ultimate tensile strength. Fatigue is characterized by fatigue strength s , [MPa] and fatigue life N, [cycles]. R is
R
cycle parameter, equal to the ratio of minimum and maximum stress. During the initial cycles a notched ductile steel specimen can sustain stress exceeding the ultimate tensile stress. Fatigue strength at N=10 of notched specimen is usually lower than the unnotched.
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The figure shows approximate values of fatigue strength for carbon steel welded joints. The fatigue strength varies over a wide range.
Geometry of weld affects the fatigue strength. A machined weld demonstrates greater fatigue strength. The numbers shows percentage of fatigue strength of a uniform plate under tension.
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Fatigue cracks can start from all defects, but only one crack becomes dominate and results in failure. Lack of fusion on the surface is a case where the fatigue crack grows fastest.
Initial manufacturing defects in welds decrease fatigue strength. The critical stress is sufficiently smaller than the static one.
There are two main mechanisms of fatigue crack growth: I for small weld sizes s and II for large s. For large values of s the parameter does not affect the fatigue life of the joint.
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A large angle q corresponds to high fatigue strength. The effect of stress increase is higher for fatigue strength than for tensile strength.
Imperfections such as offset d decreases fatigue strength of butt-welds. It creates high stress concentration, fatigue crack is initiated faster for a weld with an offset.
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Fatigue strength decreases for greater cross-section due to larger number of surface defects and lower ability to deform plastically.
Loading with negative cycle parameter R leads to increased local plastic deformation and faster crack initiation. Fatigue strength is lower at negative cycle parameter R.
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There are three basic fractures connected with welded structures: 1) brittle fracture: fast crack propagated from a welding defect into a heat-affected zone, usually occurring within a second; 2) fatigue fracture: fatigue crack growing slowly from welding defects under cyclic loading; 3) corrosion fatigue: a crack propagated by joint action of corrosion (local embrittlement) and cyclic loading.
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For complex structures, the trajectory of a fatigue crack can be curved. A fatigue crack initiates from or tends to zones of maximum tensile stress. The strongest welded structures have the smallest concentration of welding defects and residual stress in the most highly loaded zones.
Some welding defects can be observed at the weld surface. Defects in welds have different geometry and location: A. Hot cracks are usually curved and open. B. Cold cracks are usually straight. C. Lamellar cracks are perpendicular to the thick plate surface.
Scale effect. For wider welds there is a higher probability of weld defects and fatigue cracks. Fatigue life decreases with weld size increase.
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Weldability is the ability of materials (or structures) to form a strong defect-free weld. Poor weldability results in hot cracking, cold cracking or lack of fusion. Preliminary heating of base parts (preheating) decreases hot cracking. The best weldability can be obtained in the gravity position. Weldability depends on materials. This list is in order of decreasing weldability: Steel 0.2%C, cold-rolled Stainless steel Aluminum alloy 7075-T6 Ductile iron The melting points of aluminum alloy and steel differ by more than 500 degrees Celsius. The metals cannot be melted together.
To form a defect-free tee-joint it is better to use similar thickness of welded parts. An all-around welding of two massive (rigid) parts results in hot cracking.
The more rigid a welded structure, the more susceptible to hot cracking. The specimens are shown in increasing order for susceptibility to hot cracking and decreasing order of weldability.
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1. Y-groove restrain cracking test for heavy plates with a new weld in the center. Hot cracking in the new weld is under investigation. This test helps to estimate susceptibility to hot cracking. 2.The implant method for studying weldability and determining susceptibility to cold cracking. 3.Tension of a machined specimen for studying susceptibility to lamellar cracking.
There are some simple rules how to design a reliable welded structure. We mention a few of them here:
A. Keep welds away from zones of high stress concentration.
B. Keep welds away from surfaces to be machined.
C. Don't make butt-weld intersections.
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D. Place vertical walls where force is applied.
E. Choose proper weld size.
F. Avoid gaps.
G. Don't use sharp rigidity transition in tensile
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flange.
Cary, H.B. Modern Welding Technology, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979. Gray, T.G.F., J. Spence, and T.H. North Rational Welding Design, New York : Butterworths, 1975. Kalpakjian S. Manufacturing Engineering And Technology, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1989. Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 6: Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, 1983. Welding Handbook 8th ed., 3 vols, Maiami: American Welding Society, 1987.
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1. Stress Concentration 2. Fracure Mechanics 3. Mechanical Properties 4. Strength of Materials 5. Theory of Elasticity 6. Structural Safety 7. Material Science 8. Welds 9.Composite Materials
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Theme 10. Finite Element Analysis
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8 WELDS

Igor Kokcharov and Anatolii Lepikhin

D. Gas welding, build-up weld

uses opposite directions, the distortion is smaller.

depends on allowable shear stress for the weld material t .

A. Keep welds away from zones of high stress concentration.

B. Keep welds away from surfaces to be machined.

C. Don't make butt-weld intersections.

D. Place vertical walls where force is applied.

E. Choose proper weld size.

G. Don't use sharp rigidity transition in tensile

Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme

Theme 10. Finite Element Analysis

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