GHMC Term 1 Question Paper on Biology (XI-XII syllabus) (2011-12 Batch) Test on Bio-I LAQ (ANY ONE) (1x10=10)

1. What is menstrual cycle? Describe its various Phases. 2. Give on account of fat soluble & water soluble vitamin, their source and deficiency symptoms. 3. Describe reflex action and reflex arc with diagram and importance of reflexes. SAQ (ANY THREE) (3x5=15) 1. Saliva Composition & function 2. Corpus luteum. 3. Receptor & types of receptors 4. Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm & sarcomere 5. Function of hypothalamus 6. Differentiate between skeletal & smooth muscle. Test on Bio-II LAQ (Any one) 1. Give the names & function of hormones secreted by pituitary gland. 2. Describe various steps in TCA (Krebs) cycle. 3. Describe mechanism of urine formation. SAQ (Any three) (3x5=15) 1. Function of blood. 2. Selective reabsorption 3. Surfactant 4. Significance of glycolysis 5. Goiter & its symptoms 6. Juxtaglomerular apparatus Re-Test on Bio-I LAQ (ANY ONE) (1x10=10) 1. Give an account of mechanism of breathing. 2. What is arterial blood pressure? Describe various factors affecting it. 3. Explain counter current multiplier system. SAQ (Any three) (3x5=15) 1. Gaseous exchange in the lungs 2. Types of cartilage. 3. Glomerular filtration. 4. Functions of RBC. 5. Glycolysis schematic representation. 6. Anaerobic respiration. Retest on Bio-II LAQ (ANY ONE) (1x10=10) 1. Describe the uterine changes associated with different phases of menstruation. 2. Give the names and functions of hormones secreted by pituitary gland, with details of each. 3. Describe the process of digestion in stomach and small intestine. SAQ (Any three) (3x5=15) 1. Saliva composition and function. 2. Corpus luteum. 3. Receptors and their types. 4. Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm and sarcomere 5. Functions of hypothalamus. 6. Unipolar, bipolar and multipolar neurons Short Practice Answer Guidelines for Pass Level Qu. 1. What is menstrual cycle? Describe its various phases. Introduction The menstrual cycle is a characteristic of primates (monkeys, apes and humans). It starts at the time of puberty. This period is called menarche. Duration of menstrual cycle in human lasts for 2-3 days. The days are numbered from the first day of blood flow in the menstrual period. There is series of events occurring regularly in females every 26 to 30 days throughout the child bearing period of about 32 years. Changes The menstrual cycle consists of a series of changes that take place simultaneously in the ovaries and uterine walls (endometrium). It is stimulated by different concentration of gonadotropins like FSH and LH. Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) promotes the maturation of ovarian follicles and secretion of oestrogen leading to ovulation while luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the development of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone. Phases The menstrual cycle includes four phases menstrual phase, proliferative phase, ovulatory phase, luteal phase or secretory phase. st th Menstrual phase - It is also called as bleeding phase. This phase extends from 1 to 4 day of menstrual cycle. After 14 days of ovulation if ovum is not fertilized, the lining of uterus degenerates and the menstruation begins. The day when bleeding starts is considered as the first day of menstrual cycle. Menstrual flow consists of the secretions from endometrial glands, cell debris, blood and unfertilized ovum. During menstrual flow about 35 to 45ml of blood is lost. When the amount of progesterone further decreases and stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete FSH, proliferative phase begins. th th Proliferative phase/ follicular phase - This phase extends from 5 to 13 day of menstrual cycle. Changes in ovary - During this phase, the primordial follicle of the ovary develops into Graafian follicle. Follicle is covered with two layers called theca interna and theca externa. Theca interna secretes female sex hormone called oestrogen. Theca externa is outer layer of follicle and consists of fibrous connective tissue. This follicle is called mature or Graafian follicle. Only one follicle out of many developing follicles grows into Graafian follicle. Changes in uterus Oestrogen secreted by follicular cells of ovary stimulates endometrial glands. This causes repair of the endometrium. The endometrial cells proliferate and thickness of endometrium grows to about 3 mm. Ovulatory phase - Ovulation is the process in which there is rupture of Graafian follicle with discharge of ovum into abdominal cavity. It is th under the influence of luteinising hormone. A sudden rise in level of LH stimulates ovulation, which occurs usually on 14 day of

Biology Answers: compiled by (Dr) Lalit Singh, typed Kanaklata Bobde, Ed Dr S S Kochhar, HOD
menstrual cycle. The rupture of Graafian follicle results in oozing out of follicular fluid. The egg passes through fallopian tube and fertilization takes place in fallopian tube. th th Luteal phase or secretory phase - This phase extends from 15 to 28 day of menstrual cycle. Changes in ovary - After ovulation, the ruptured follicle develops in a yellow body called corpus luteum. It acts as temporary endocrine gland which secretes progesterone, which helps in maintaining the thickness of endometrium. So it is also called pregnancy hormone. If the ovum is not fertilized the corpus luteum degenerates and transforms into a whitish scar called corpus albicans. Changes in uterus - Corpus luteum formed in ovary secrete progesterone. It causes further growth of endometrial glands. If fertilization occurs, embryo is implanted in thickened endometrium. o Applied aspect 1. Corpus luteum is active till the placenta takes up the function of secretion of hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The hCG is similar to LH. Abortion occurs if corpus luteum becomes inactive before the formation of placenta. (About three months of pregnancy). 2. Pregnancy test - During pregnancy, presence of hCG is detected in the urine. This constitutes one of the earliest tests of pregnancy. Qu. 2. Give an account of fat soluble and water soluble vitamins, their sources and deficiency symptoms. Introduction Vitamin (vita = life, min= amine). Vitamins are relatively simpler organic compounds synthesized mostly by plants and certain intestinal bacteria. Vitamins are generally not stored in the body. We obtain most of them in traces (micronutrients) from our food. Classification - Vitamins can be classified as fat soluble vitamins and water soluble vitamins. o Fat soluble vitamins (a) Vitamin A or retinol (C20H30O) Not synthesized by plants. Animals themselves synthesize it in liver and cells of intestinal mucus membrane from yellow and red bone carotenoid pigment. Sources - Carrot, spinach, apricot, milk, butter, kidney, egg yolk, fish oil, liver. Function - Essential for synthesis of visual pigment, growth and division of epithelial cells. General health and vigor. It participates in the composition of visual pigments. Essential for growth and division of epithelial cells. Deficiency - Conjunctiva and cornea of eyes become dry, keratinized (xerophthalmia) and opaque. Hence patient fails to see in dim light and twilight (night blindness). Excessive stratification and keratinization of epithelial cells of skin, respiratory passage, urinary bladder, ureters, germinal epithelial and intestinal mucosa. Other clinical symptoms - Impaired growth in children, retarded glandular secretion, and reproductive debility. Kidney stones may be formed. From weakened epithelia, susceptibility to infection. It is also called anti infection vitamin. Recommended dose 8-16 mg for adult and 4-10mg for children. (b) Vitamin D or ergocalciferol or antirachitic vitamin or cholecalciferol (C28H44O) Sources - Synthesized in skin cells in sunlight from 7-dehydrocholestrol, that is why it is called sunshine vitamin. Also obtained from butter, liver, kidney, egg yolk, fish liver oil. Yeast cells synthesize another vitamin D called ergocalciferol from ergosterol. Function - This vitamin regulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from gastrointestinal tract and mineral deposition in bones and teeth. Essential for healthy growth of bones and teeth. Their excess quantities are stored in liver. Deficiency - Deficiency of this vitamin causes rickets in which bones become soft, curved and fragile (osteomalacia). Teeth also become soft and fragile (caries or tooth decay). Lack of vigor and loss of muscle tone. Recommended dose 0.08 mg for children. (c) Vitamin E or tocopherol (C29H46O2) Sources - Green leafy vegetables, oils, wheat, egg yolk and animal tissues. Function - They are essential for cofactor involved in proper spermatogenesis, normal pregnancy and lactation. It is also called antisterility vitamins. They also play some role in metabolism of complex carbohydrates and fats and proper functioning of muscles. Deficiency - Deficiency of this vitamin causes muscular atrophy and sterility. (d) Vitamin K or phylloquinone or naphthoquinone (C31H46O2) Sources - Carrot, lettuce, cabbage, tomatoes, liver, egg yolk, cheese, synthesized by colon bacteria. Function - An essential cofactor involved in synthesis of prothrombin in liver cells, which is in turn essential for blood clotting, prevention of haemorrhages and excessive bleeding from wound. This vitamin is therefore called antihaemorrhagic factor. o Water soluble vitamins. VITAMIN B COMPLEX (a) Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Sources - Rice bran, whole wheat flour and other cereals, green leafy vegetables, nuts, pulses, oatmeal, eggs, yeast, meat, liver etc. Function - It is a component of coenzyme of the enzyme co-carboxylase which is essential for concluding stages of nervous system, which almost completely depends upon carbohydrate metabolism for energy. Deficiency - Impairs functioning of nervous system and muscles. Loss of appetite and vigor. Constipation, weakened heartbeat, fatigue, muscle atrophy and even paralysis. Beriberi. (b) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Sources - Milk, cheese, tomatoes, liver, egg, green leafy vegetables, yeast, meat, cereals etc. Function - It is component of coenzyme FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) which is an important hydrogen carrier in citric acid cycle of oxidative metabolism. Essential for growth and health. Deficiency Cheilosis, characterized by inflammation and cracking of angle of mouth. Digestive disorder, burning sensation in skin and eyes. Headache, mental depression, forgetfulness, scaly dermatitis, keratitis of cornea. (c) Vitamin B3 (Nicotinic acid, niacin or vitamin PP) Sources - Fresh milk, fish, pulses, liver, egg, yeast, meat, cereals etc. Function - It is an active group in the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) which acts as an important hydrogen acceptor in the citric acid cycle of oxidative metabolism. Deficiency - Its deficiency causes a severe disease called pellagra characterized by dermatitis (inflammation of skin- skin becomes thick, pigmented and cracked or scaly in many parts of body). Diarrhoea, dementia (neural deterioration). Muscle atrophy and severe inflammation of mucous membrane of mouth and gut, causing gut haemorrhage. (d) Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Sources - Milk, whole grain, cereals, nuts, fish, meat, liver, yeast. Also synthesized by intestinal bacteria. Function - It plays a key role as a coenzyme in many chemical reactions relating to amino acid and protein metabolism. Deficiency - It causes dermatitis, anemia, convulsion, nausea, vomiting, mental disorder and retarded growth.

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Biology Answers: compiled by (Dr) Lalit Singh, typed Kanaklata Bobde, Ed Dr S S Kochhar, HOD
(e) Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Sources - Almost all food stuff. Abundant in yeast, liver, kidney, egg, meat, milk, sugarcane, groundnut, tomatoes. Function - It is an important component of coenzyme A which has many metabolic roles, particularly in conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl-CoA for citric acid cycle and in degradation of fatty acid into acetyl-CoA. Deficiency - Retards general and mental growth and induces nausea, fatigue, reproductive debility, fatty liver, dermatitis, graying of hair. (f) Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamine) Sources - Meat, fish, milk, liver, also synthesised by intestinal bacteria. Function - Complex cobalt containing compound of porphyrin group acting as a cofactor involved at least in two enzyme systems. It is concerned with chromosome duplication during cell division, maintenance of myelin sheath and epithelial cells and formation of blood corpuscles. Deficiency - Retards growth and causes pernicious anemia. (g) Vitamin H (Biotin) Sources - Yeast, vegetables, fruits, wheat, chocolate, eggs, groundnuts etc. Synthesised by intestinal bacteria. Function - Plays important role as a coenzyme in lipid synthesis and energy production. Deficiency - Skin lesions, loss of appetite, nausea, weakness, hair fall etc. (h) Folic acid group (Pteroylglutamic acid) Sources - Green leafy vegetables, soya bean, yeast, kidney, liver, also synthesised by intestinal bacteria. Function - Essential for growths, because they play important role in synthesis of DNA during cell division and in maturation of blood corpuscles in bone marrow. Deficiency - Retards growth and causes anemia. (i) Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Sources - Citrus and other fruits, tomatoes, green leafy vegetables, potatoes, carrots, pepper etc. Function - Essential for formation of collagen, cartilage, bones, teeth, connective tissue and RBCs and for iron metabolism. Deficiency - Delayed wound healing and retarded growth. Break down of immune defense system. Spongy and bleeding gums. Fragile blood vessels and bones. Exhaustion. Nervous breakdown. High fever. Qu. 3. Describe reflex action and reflex arc with diagram and importance of reflexes. Definition/Introduction - Reflex action is a quick, automatic involuntary and often unconscious action brought about when the receptors are stimulated by external or internal stimuli. Reflex arc - The structural and functional unit of reflex action is the reflex arc. It is the path followed by an impulse which is unidirectional. It originates in the receptor organ and ends in the effector organ via CNS. Simple reflex arc - Simple reflex arc is formed by five components as follows (i) Receptor organ - It is a specialized part of body called as sense organ that receives the stimulus and convert it into the impulse e.g., skin, eye, ear, tongue, nasal epithelium. (ii) Sensory (afferent) neurons - it carries sensory nerve impulse from receptor organ to CNS. Its cyton is located in dorsal root ganglion. Its Dendron is long and connected to receptor while the axon enters in the grey matter of spinal cord to form a synapse. (iii) Association or intermediate neuron - It is present in the grey matter of spinal cord. It receives sensory impulse. Interprets it and generates the motor impulse. (iv) Motor (effector) neuron - Its cyton is present in the ventral horn of grey matter and axon travels through ventral root. It conducts impulse from spinal cord to effector organ. (v) Effector organ - It is a specialized part of body which is excited by receiving the motor impulse. It gives proper response to the stimulus. E.g., muscle and glands. Mechanism - The reflex action is completed by a series of events. For example, when the hand is pricked with a needle, immediately hand is withdrawn. The events that occur are - pricking of needle stimulates skin response, sensory impulse is formed and is carried by dendrites innervating the skin. Impulse is carried to the association neuron. The association neuron receives sensory impulse, interprets, analyses and generates motor impulse. Motor impulse again travels through synapse between association neuron and motor neuron. Impulse travels through motor neuron and reaches effector organ like skeletal muscle or the gland. The effector organ gives a proper response like contraction of the muscle or secretion by the gland. Types of reflex action may be cerebral (controlled by brain) or spinal (controlled by spinal cord). In man most of the reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord. Types - Reflexes are of two types: A. Unconditional or inborn These are inborn or hereditary. They are permanent, never disappear and need no previous experience. E.g., blinking of eyes with strong light, withdrawal of hand when pricked, sucking of milk by baby, swallowing, knee jerk, sneezing and coughing, etc. B. Conditional or acquired - These are acquired during life by experience or learning. These are individual ones which require proper training. These are non-inherited, temporary and may disappear or reappear. E.g., driving motor car, cycling and games. Significance - Reflex action helps to adjust quickly to the changing environment. The life may have been in danger in the absence of reflexes. Thus reflexes have survival value. Most of the reflexes are controlled by spinal cord without involving brain and prevent overloading of the brain and fatigue. Qu. 4. Saliva and its composition and function. Composition It contains 99.5% water and 0.5% solids. The composition of saliva is as follows: Solids - Organic substance, inorganic substance and gases. Organic 1. Enzymes - Amylase, maltase, lingual lipase, lysozyme, phosphatase, carbonic anhydrase, kallikrein. 2. Other organic substances - Protein (mucin and albumin), blood group antigen, free amino acid, nonprotein nitrogenous substances (urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, xanthine, hypoxanthine). Inorganic Sodium, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate, bromide, chloride, fluoride, phosphate. Gases Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen. Function 1. Preparation of food for swallowing - When food enters the mouth, saliva moistens and dissolves it. The mucous membrane of mouth is also moistend by saliva. It facilitates chewing. The mucin of saliva lubricates the bolus and facilitates swallowing. 2. Appreciation of taste - Saliva by its solvent action dissolves the solid food substance, so that the dissolved substance can stimulate the taste buds.

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Biology Answers: compiled by (Dr) Lalit Singh, typed Kanaklata Bobde, Ed Dr S S Kochhar, HOD
Digestive function - Saliva has three digestive enzymes namely salivary amylase, maltase and lingual lipase. Salivary amylase acts on cooked or boiled starch and converts it into dextrin and maltose. Maltase converts maltose into glucose. Lingual lipase converts triglycerides of milk fat into fatty acids and diacylglycerol. 4. Cleansing and protective function - Due to constant secretion of saliva, the mouth and teeth are kept rinsed and kept free from food debris. Saliva prevents bacterial growth by removing materials which may serve as culture media for bacterial growth. Enzyme lysozyme of saliva kills some bacteria such as staphylococcus, streptococcus and brucella. 5. Role in speech - By moistening and lubricating the soft part of mouth and lips, saliva helps in speech. If the mouth is dry, articulation and pronunciation become difficult. 6. Excretory function - Many substances both organic and inorganic are excreted in saliva. It excretes substances like mercury, potassium iodide, lead and thiocynate. Saliva also excretes some viruses such as those causing rabies and mumps. 7. Regulation of body temperature - In humans it is less marked. In dogs and cattle excessive dripping of saliva during panting helps in heat loss and regulation of body temperature. 8. Regulation of water balance - When water content of body decreases, salivary secretion also decreases. This causes dryness of the mouth and induces thirst. Qu. 5. Corpus luteum. Introduction - After ovulation the ruptured ovarian follicle develops into a yellow body called corpus luteum. Function - Corpus luteum acts as a temporary endocrine gland which secretes progesterone, which in turn helps in maintaining the thickness of endometrium. So it is also called pregnancy hormone. Fate - If the ovum is not fertilized the corpus luteum degenerates and transforms into a whitish scar called corpus albicans. Corpus luteum is active till the placenta takes up the function of secretion the hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The hCG is similar to LH. Abortion occurs if corpus luteum becomes inactive before the formation of placenta. Changes in uterus - Corpus luteum is formed in ovary and secretes progesterone. It causes further growth of endometrial glands. If fertilization occurs, embryo is implanted in thickened endometrium Qu. 6. Receptors and types of receptors. Receptors are specialized cells, tissues, or organs of the body which are able to receive different stimuli. Types - Exteroceptors and interoceptors. Exteroceptors are somatic and receive stimuli directly from external environment. On the other hand, interoceptors, also called visceral receptors are present inside the body and respond to internal changes. A. Exteroceptors -These are of the following types: (1) Mechanoreceptor Location - Touch corpuscle of skin. Function - Sensitive to touch and pressure. a) Tactile receptor for touch. b) Tango receptor for pressure. (2) Thermo receptor Location - Skin. Function - Sensitive to temperature. a) Frigidoreceptor for cold. b) Heat receptor for warmth. (3) Chemoreceptor Location - Taste bud of tongue and olfactory mucosa of nose. Function a) Gustatoreceptor for taste. b) Olfactory receptor for smell. (4) Statoacoustic receptor Location - Inner ear. Function a) Cochlea Hearing. b) Semicircular canals - Balance and equilibrium. (5) Photoreceptor Location - Retina of eye. Function a) Rods - Sensitive to dim light and produce black and white image. b) Cones - Sensitive to bright light and produce coloured image. B. Interoceptors -These are of the following types: (1) Proprioceptors Location - muscle and joints. Function a) Sensation of pain and tension. b) Sensitive to vibration. (2) Enteroceptors Location - Visceral organs. Function - Hunger, thirst, pain, temperature, pH, osmotic change. (3) Baroreceptor Location - Walls of carotid artery. Function - Sensitive to changes in blood pressure. Qu. 7. Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm and sarcomere Sarcolemma - Each muscle fiber is enclosed by a cell membrane called plasma membrane that lies beneath the endomysium. It is also called sarcolemma. It is electrically charged membrane. Sarcoplasm - The cytoplasm of the muscle is known as sarcoplasm. Many structures are embedded within the sarcoplasm, such as nuclei, mitochondria, myofibril, sarcoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosome, and glycogen droplets and occasional lipid droplets. Sarcomere - Sarcomere is the structural and functional unit of the skeletal muscle. It is also called the basic contractile unit of the muscle. Each sarcomere extends between two Z lines of myofibrils. Thus each myofibril contains many sarcomeres arranged in series throughout its length. Each myofibril comprises alternate dark A band and light I band. In the middle of A band, there is a light area called H zone. In the middle of H zone lies the mid part of myosin filament. This is called as M line. M line is formed by myosin binding protein. Similarly 3.

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Biology Answers: compiled by (Dr) Lalit Singh, typed Kanaklata Bobde, Ed Dr S S Kochhar, HOD
the I band is divided into two equal portions by means of a narrow line called as Z line. The part of myofibril between two Z lines is called as sarcomere. Qu. 8. Function of hypothalamus. Hypothalamus - The floor of diencephalon is hypothalamus. A stalk like downward projection from hypothalamus is called infundibular stalk to which a pituitary gland is attached. The hypothalamus has many masses of grey matter called hypothalamic nuclei scattered in white matter. Functions 1. Hypothalamus has higher centers of ANS that control involuntary functions like thermoregulation, hunger, eating, thirst, fear, anger, emotion, sleep, sexual desire. 2. Hypothalamus is the coordinator between nervous system and endocrine system. It secretes neurohormones (stimulating and inhibitory factors) which influence the pituitary gland. 3. Regulates the heart rate and blood pressure through vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata. 4. Regulates the body temperature. The heat loss center is situated in anterior hypothalamus, and the heat gain center is situated in posterior hypothalamus. 5. Regulates the water balance by thirst mechanism and ADH control. 6. Regulates the sleep and wakefulness. 7. Regulates the response to stress. Qu. 9. Differentiate between skeletal and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle - The skeletal muscles which regulate the movements of skeleton are also called as voluntary muscles, because they can be moved at will. The muscles when viewed under microscope show transverse stripes or striae. The skeletal muscle consists of muscle fibers or cells. These are present in many bundles of fasciculi. Each fasciculus is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called as perimysium. Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a thin, electrically charged membrane, the sarcolemma which contains several nuclei and mitochondria. Each muscle fiber itself is formed of bundles of myofibrils. The striated muscle and the myofibrils show cross bonding or alternate dark and light bands. The dark band is known as A band or anisotropic band (dense condition) and light band is called I band or isotropic band (less dense condition). The A band has a less dense narrow line or Hensens line. The I band has a dark line called Z line or Krauses membrane. The part of the myofibril between the two Z lines is called sarcomere. The muscle is rich in protein. The protein occurs as two types of filament in myofibrils. Chemically, the thin filaments are made up of second protein myosin. The skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton. They are capable of rapid and sustained contraction, but are subject to fatigue. These muscles enable the person to walk, move skillfully, breathe, eat and perform other physical functions. Smooth muscle - The smooth muscle fibers are elongated, spindle shaped cells, which have a single oval nucleus in the centre. The cytoplasm shows longitudinal striations which are called myofibrils. Each fiber is surrounded by a thin membrane called sarcolemma. Generally smooth or unstriped muscle is called involuntary, because its contraction is not under the control of will. The smooth muscle responds slowly to stimulation and undergoes slow but prolonged contraction. Functionally, there are of two types. First, in the single unit smooth muscle fibers are closely joined together. They contract together as a single unit. They are self stimulating and no neural impulse is required for contraction. Secondly, in multiunit smooth muscle the fibers move independently and are not closely joined together. They contract as separate unit and require neural impulse. Smooth muscles occur in the wall of intestine, urinary bladder, gall bladder, oviducts, uterus and blood vessels. Qu. 10. Give the names and functions of hormones secreted by pituitary gland. Pituitary gland (Hypophysis) - The pituitary gland and hypothalamus act as a unit, regulating the activity of most of the other endocrine glands. Hypophysis is located close to the ventral aspect of the brain, below the hypothalamus to which it is attached by hypophyseal stalk (infundibulum), just behind the optic chiasm. It is well protected in a depression of the sphenoid bone of the skull called sella turcica. Pituitary gland is ectodermal and endodermal in origin (dual origin) and develops from nervous tissue and epithelial tissue. Hormones of pars distalis (a) Somatotropic hormone (STH) or growth hormone (GH) Function - It is a proteinous hormone, which promotes growth of body by increasing protein synthesis. It stimulates lipolysis in adipose tissue to release more free fatty acids. It promotes cell division. It increases growth of bones by increasing absorption of calcium. It increases glucose level of blood by decreased secretion of insulin. (b) Thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH) or thyrotropin. Function - TSH stimulates thyroid gland to increases uptake of iodine for synthesis of thyroxin. It brings breakdown of colloid to release thyroxin. (c) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or corticotrophin. Function - It stimulates growth and secretion of adrenal cortex hormones, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and androgens. (d) Prolactin (PL) or leuteotropic hormone (LTH) Function- It promotes development of mammary glands (mammotropin), and milk secretion (lactogenic). This hormone maintains corpus luteum in ovary, which secretes progesterone during pregnancy (leuteotropin). It reduces chances of pregnancy during lactation period. (e) Gonadotropic hormone (GTH) or gonadotropins The two types of gonadotropins are FSH and LH or ICSH. (i) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - In females, it stimulates germinal epithelium of ovary for oogenesis and development of mature Graafian follicle. It also stimulates follicular cells for secretion of estrogen. In males, FSH stimulates germinal epithelium of seminiferous tubules for spermatogenesis and production of mature sperm.. (ii) LH (luteinizing hormone) Function - In female it stimulates mature Graafian follicle to rupture and release ovum. Further empty Graafian follicle is changed to corpus luteum which secrets gestational hormone progesterone, responsible for maintenance of endometrium. (iii) ICSH (interstitial cell stimulating hormone) - This is the name by which LH is called in male. Function - It stimulates interstitial cells of Leydig to secrete hormone testosterone. It is required for development of secondary sexual character in males. Hormones of neurohypophysis Neurohypophysis does not secrete any hormone but stores the hormones which are secreted by hypothalamic neurons. It stores and releases following hormones: (a) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin Function - ADH increases the permeability of distal convoluted tubules or collecting ducts of nephrons for absorption of water from the ultrafiltrate and regulates water balance of body fluids. Thereby it decreases the urine output and helps water conservation. ADH also controls constriction of arterioles to increase the blood pressure in kidney which facilitates ultrafiltration so called vasopressin.

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Biology Answers: compiled by (Dr) Lalit Singh, typed Kanaklata Bobde, Ed Dr S S Kochhar, HOD
(b) Oxytocin (Birth hormone) Function - It is a powerful stimulant of contraction of uterine myometrium at the end of gestation to initiate labor pain for normal delivery. It stimulates myoepithelial cells of mammary gland for milk ejection during breast feeding. It also helps in fertilization by powerful contraction of the uterine musculature to drive the sperm towards fallopian tubes. Qu. 11. Describe mechanism of urine formation. Urine formation takes place in three stages: 1. Ultrafiltration - It takes place in Malpighian body. It is a physical process. Glomerulus and Bowmans capsule acts as filtering unit. The diameter of afferent arteriole is larger than that of the efferent arteriole. Blood enters the glomerulus at a faster rate than it leaves it. This creates a hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus. The force is called effective filtration pressure (EFP). The composition of the filtrate is more or less similar to that of body fluids. It is similar to plasma except proteins, glucose, and amino acids. Salts, urea etc. are readily filtered. 2. Selective reabsorption - By comparing the rate of production of filtrate with rate of production of urine, we understand the rate of reabsorption. About 9% of filtrate is reabsorbed. Two processes are included depending upon concentration gradient. (a) Passive transport or osmosis along the concentration gradient. (b) Active transport against the concentration gradient by using ATP molecules. As the filtrate moves through renal tubule, it comes in contact with blood found in peritubular capillaries. So exchange occurs between blood and filtrate. High threshold substances are completely reabsorbed, e.g., glucose, amino acids. Urea is reabsorbed negligibly. o Water - It is reabsorbed by osmosis everywhere except in ascending limb of loop of Henle. o Amino acids and ions - PCT pumps out glucose, amino acids and ions like potassium, calcium and chloride. o Glucose - No glucose is left in the urine of normal healthy person because maximum amount of glucose is reabsorbed. o Urea - Reabsorbed because the molecule is very small and tubules are partially permeable to it. 3. Tubular secretion - Certain nitrogenous substances pass from surrounding peritubular capillary network to the lumen of the renal tubule. The substances that are routinely secreted are creatinine, potassium and hydrogen ions. The secretion of hydrogen which takes place in DCT and collecting tubule is important for homoeostatic regulation of pH of blood. Some abnormal substances found in blood also secrete into urine. Qu. 12. Surfactant 0 Introduction - In the lungs of man, there is a film of detergent-like chemical called pulmonary surfactant. It is made up of lipoprotein (50 A ) lining the alveoli. The major component of surfactant is phospholipids, which form a monomolecular layer between air and water at alveolar surface. Function (a) The pulmonary surfactant functions in lowering the surface tension and helps the alveoli to remain open. (b) It also speeds up the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. (c) It helps to kill bacteria which reach the alveoli. (d) It reduces the efforts required to breathe in and inflate the lungs. Applied aspect (a) Surfactant is constantly secreted and reabsorbed in a healthy lung. (b) Babies born prematurely have a risk of being deficient in surfactant. (c) This causes respiratory distress syndrome in which breathing is very difficult and may cause premature death. Qu. 13. Goiter and its symptoms Goiter - Due to some genetic defects, but usually due to iodine deficiency in food the rate of thyroid secretion falls. In an effort to obtain more iodine from blood for normalizing its secretion rate, the thyroid gland itself enlarges by increasing the number of follicles. The enlarged gland causes a collar like front swelling in the neck. This condition is called goiter. It occurs both in hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Symptoms - Weight loss despite normal or increased appetite, hyperventilation, diarrhoea and steatorrhoea, anorexia, vomiting, palpitation, sinus tachycardia, increased pulse pressure, dyspnoea on exertion, nervousness, irritability, hyperreflexia, muscle weakness, increased sweating, pigmentation, exophthalmos, fatigue, amenorrhoea, infertility. Qu. 14. Juxtaglomerular apparatus. Introduction - Nephrons are of two types, varying in length, location, and blood supply. These are cortical nephrons (about 80%) and juxtaglomerular nephrons (about 20%). Juxtaglomerular nephrons - In juxtaglomerular nephrons, the initial part of distal convoluted tubule is located close to the mouth of Bowmans capsule in contact with both afferent and efferent arterioles. Epithelial cells of the tubule in contact with arteriolar wall are denser than other epithelial cells. These are collectively called macula densa. Also the smooth muscle cells of the walls of both arterioles are in contact with epithelial cells of tubule, which are swollen and contain dark granules of inactive renin. These are called juxtaglomerular cells. The whole mass of macula densa cells and juxtaglomerular cells is called juxtaglomerular apparatus or complex. The efferent arteriole of a juxtaglomerular nephron breaks up into a network of thin capillaries, which form hairpin loops called vasa recta. These loops dip into the medulla or its pyramids, alongside the loop of Henle. Function (a) The primary function of juxtaglomerular apparatus is the secretion of hormonal substance. (b) It also regulates the glomerular blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. (c) Juxtaglomerular cells secrete the hormone renin, which forms the rennin-angiotensin system. (d) Other substances like prostaglandins, cytokines and thromboxane A2 are also secreted by juxtaglomerular cells. (e) It also regulates glomerular blood flow and glomerular filtrate rate. Qu. 15. Give an account of mechanism of breathing Breathing or ventilation, which is vital to life, involves two processes: (i) Inspiration - Taking the air into the lungs which is an active process. (ii) Expiration - Letting the air out from the lungs which is a passive process. Mechanism - Breathing or ventilation is brought about by a change in volume of the thorax, through movement of the diaphragm, intercostals muscles, thoracic ribs and sternum. (i) During inspiration - The diaphragm contracts, becomes flatter thereby increasing the thoracic cavity anteroom-posteriorly. The external intercostal muscles contract and the internal intercostal muscles relax. This pulls the thoracic cage up and out, and the sternum and ribs are raised upward. This increases the volume of thoracic cavity laterally from front to back, and lowers the air pressure in the thorax and the lungs. As r result, the atmospheric pressure forces the air into the lungs via nose and trachea. The air enters the lungs inflating the alveoli, until the air pressure in the lungs is equal to that of the atmosphere. (ii) During expiration - During expiration or breathing out, a reverse process takes place. The volume of the thorax is decreased and the air rushes out of the lungs. During expiration the diaphragm relaxes, become dome shaped; thereby decreasing the volume of thoracic cavity antero-posteriorly. The external intercostal muscles relax and the sternum and ribs return to their original position.

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Biology Answers: compiled by (Dr) Lalit Singh, typed Kanaklata Bobde, Ed Dr S S Kochhar, HOD
The total decrease in thoracic volume increases the air pressure within the lungs above that of atmosphere (760 mm of Hg). As a result, the air is forced out of the lungs. Control of breathing - The normal rate of breathing is about 18 per minute. Nervous and chemical processes jointly coordinate the involuntary rhythmic breathing movements or ventilation. (i) Nervous control - The neurons in the respiratory center of medulla oblongata and pons are responsible for the rhythmic, automatic process of normal breathing. Inspiration and expiration centers are sensitive to oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration in the blood and accordingly the respiratory neurons activate motor neurons in the spine, causing the diaphragm to contract. Periodically the neurons are inhibited allowing expiration to occur. (ii) Chemical control (a) The respiratory neurons are sensitive to concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide and pH. Chemoreceptors in the carotid sinus and aortic body sense lowered oxygen levels in blood and transmit signals to the respiratory center, resulting in increased breathing rate. (b) Concentration of carbon dioxide in blood - A relative increase in the carbon dioxide concentration (lowering blood pH) stimulates respiratory center in the brain and produces first deeper and then more rapid breathing. (c) Changes in H-ion concentration - The accumulation of carbon dioxide in blood changes H-ion concentration and later the breathing movements. During acidosis, breathing rate rises and carbon dioxide is eliminated. But, during alkalosis it falls and less carbon dioxide is eliminated, which accumulates in the blood. This increases H-ion concentration in blood to maintain the normal breathing rate. (iii) Voluntary control of breathing - The higher areas of the brain can influence the respiratory center and bring breathing movements under conscious control as in speaking, singing or in holding the breath. Qu. 16. Explain counter-current multiplier system. Introduction - Kidney has a unique anatomical arrangement called counter-current system, which is responsible for the development and maintenance of medullary gradient and hyperosmolarity of interstitial fluid in the inner medulla. Counter current multiplier: o Loop of Henle It functions as countercurrent multiplier. It is responsible for the development of hyperosmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid and medullary gradient. o Role of loop of Henle in the development of medullary gradient - The loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons plays a major role as counter current multiplier rather than that of cortical nephrons. It is because the loop of juxtamedullary nephrons is long and extends up to the deeper part of medulla. Major cause for hyperosmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid is the active reabsorption of sodium, chloride and other solutes from ascending limb of Henles loop into the medullary interstitium. These solutes accumulate in the medullary interstitium and increase the osmolarity. Now due to the concentration gradient the sodium and chloride ions diffuse from medullary interstitium into the descending limb of Henles loop and reach the ascending limb again via hair pin bend. Thus the sodium and chloride ions are repeatedly recirculated between the descending limb of Henles loop through medullary interstitial fluid leaving a portion to be excreted in the urine. This helps to increase the osmolarity of the medullary interstitial fluid and development of medullary gradient. Apart from this there is a regular addition of more sodium and chloride ions by constant filtration process. Henles loop retains these new ions also in the medullary interstitium. Hence it is called counter current multiplier. o Other factors responsible for hyperosmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid - Reabsorption of sodium from medullary part of collecting duct into the medullary interstitium. Urea recirculation in between collecting duct and medullary interstitium. Qu. 17. Gaseous exchange in the lungs. Introduction - Gaseous exchange in lungs takes place by a physical process of diffusion. As the air enters the lung, gaseous exchange takes place at two levels (i) Exchange in the lungs (External respiration) During external respiration exchange of gases takes place between the blood and the air in the lungs. The lining of the lung alveoli is covered with a thin film of moisture and they also have blood capillary network. The oxygen concentration of the blood in the lung capillaries is lower than that in the alveoli. Therefore the oxygen diffuses into the RBC of capillaries, combines with haemoglobin and finally carried through pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart. Simultaneously carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveoli from the blood capillaries as its concentration is lower in the alveoli. This is helped by enzyme carbonic anhydrase. (ii) Exchange at tissue level (Internal respiration) - In internal respiration, oxygen from blood is given to the tissue and carbon dioxide from the tissue passes into blood. It is also called tissue or cell respiration. The oxygen rich blood is carried from the lungs through to the tissues. Here the oxygen diffuses from the blood into the tissue as it contains less oxygen than the blood. Carbon dioxide is the product of cellular metabolism. It is generated by the oxidation of food stuff. As its concentration is more in tissues, it diffuses from the cells into the interstitial fluid and into the capillaries. This exchange of gases at cells or tissue level is called tissue or cell respiration. In tissue respiration the oxygen is utilized by the cell to release energy. Qu. 18. Types of cartilages. Introduction - Cartilage is solid, flexible supportive skeletal tissue. It consists of an organic elastic substance called chondrin. The living cells of the cartilage i.e. chondrocytes secrete a great amount of translucent matrix. There are no blood vessel in cartilage (avascular), but is surrounded by a vascular membrane called perichondrium. The nutrients are passed by slow diffusion from perichondrium to matrix and to the cells. Types - There are four types of cartilages hyaline, fibrous, elastic, and calcified. a) Hyaline cartilage - Hyaline means glassy and shiny. This is the simplest form of cartilage. The cartilage appears pale blue or glass like (hyaline). It is covered by an outer vascular membrane called perichondrium. The matrix is clear and contains small spaces known as lacunae. Each lacuna contains two or four cells called chondrocytes. Hyaline cartilage is present at the end of long bones (e.g., femur), ribs, and tracheal rings. It relieves the bone of shocks and also helps to reduce the friction of two bones at their ends. b) Fibrous cartilage - This cartilage consists of matrix secreted by chondrocytes in the lacunae. The matrix contains bundles of white inelastic dense collagen fibers. There is no perichondrium. Fibrous cartilage occurs in such places where strength and flexibility is required. It is present in the intervertebral disc of mammals and in pubic symphysis, lower jaw, clavicle and the knee. c) Elastic cartilage - It contains many elastic fibers between scattered chondrocytes. As the name suggests, elastic cartilage is elastic and has great flexibility. It is present in external ear (pinna), epiglottis and in Eustachian tube wall. d) Calcified cartilage - In this cartilage, the matrix is impregnated with calcium salts. This gives strength to the cartilage. When calcified cartilage becomes hard, it resembles bone. It occurs in pubis and at the head of the humerus and femur. Qu. 19. Glomerular filtration. Definition - When the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries the plasma is filtered into the Bowmans capsule. All the substances of plasma are filtered except the plasma protein. The filtered fluid is called glomerular filtrate. During filtration, the substances pass through a filtering membrane which is formed by three layers of structures: o The endothelium of glomerular capillary membrane,

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Biology Answers: compiled by (Dr) Lalit Singh, typed Kanaklata Bobde, Ed Dr S S Kochhar, HOD
Basement membrane, and Epithelium in the visceral layer of Bowmans capsule. The glomerular filtration is called ultra-filtration, because even the minute particles are filtered. But the plasma proteins are not filtered due to their large size. About 125 ml per minute (about 180 to 200 liters per day) of filtrate is formed. This rate of filtration is called glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It takes only four minute for the entire blood to pass through glomeruli once. Amount of blood which passes through glomeruli varies from 600-650 ml per minute. Qu. 20. Functions of RBC. The following are the functions of red blood cells. (a) Transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues - Haemoglobin in RBC combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. About 97% of oxygen is transported in the form of oxyhaemoglobin. (b) Transport of carbon dioxide from the tissue to the lungs - Haemoglobin combines with carbon dioxide and forms carbhaemoglobin. About 30% of carbon dioxide is transported in this form. RBC contains a large amount of the carbonic anhydrase. This enzyme is necessary for the formation of bicarbonate from water and carbon dioxide. Thus it helps to transport carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate from tissue to lung. About 63% of carbon dioxide is transported in this form. (c) Buffering action in the blood - Haemoglobin functions as a good buffer. By this action, it regulates the hydrogen ion concentration and thereby plays a role in the maintenance of acid base balance. (d) In blood group determination - RBC carry the blood group antigens like A agglutinogen, B agglutinogen, and Rh factor. This helps in determination of blood group and enables to prevent reaction due to incompatibility of blood transfusion. Qu. 21. Anaerobic respiration. Definition - The respiration which takes place without the participation of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. In anaerobic respiration food is incompletely oxidized to form products like carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol, water is not produced. The respiration occurs in cytoplasm of prokaryotic organism like some bacteria and few eukaryotic organisms like fungi and endoparasites. RBC and muscle cells also undergo anaerobic respiration. The organism performing this process is called as anaerobes. The overall equation of anaerobic respiration can be represented as follows C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + ENERGY (50 Kcal) ENERGY= HEAT ENERGY + 2 ATP. o The energy released during respiration is in the form of ATP and heat. The heat energy maintains the body temperature and the energy in ATP acts as energy currency to perform various metabolic activities. Anaerobic respiration is intracellular and enzymes are required. The net gain is of 2 ATP per molecule of glucose. It involves glycolysis, decarboxylation and reduction. Glycolysis - Glucose is broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, 2 molecules of NADH2 and 2 molecules of ATP. This may be represented as: C6H12O6 + 2NAD + 2ADP + 2Pi 2CH3COCOOH + 2NADH2 + 2ATP. Decarboxylation - Pyruvic acid undergoes decarboxylation in presence of enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase with TPP (Thymine pyrophosphate) ++ as coenzyme and Zn as cofactor and is converted as acetaldehyde. 2CH3COCOOH decarboxylase 2CH3CHO + 2CO2 Reduction - The acetaldehyde is reduced to ethyl alcohol by accepting hydrogen atom from NADH2 produced in glycolysis. The reaction is catalyzed by enzyme ethanol dehydrogenase. 2CH3CHO + 2NADH2 ethanol dehydrogenase 2C2H5OH + 2NAD In some anaerobes like lactic acid bacteria there is no decarboxylation of pyruvic acid and it is directly reduced to lactic acid by NADH2 produced during glycolysis. There is no evolution of carbon dioxide. Anaerobic respiration is the process used in the synthesis of alcohol, of various organic acids, vitamins, antibiotics, enzymes etc. Qu. 22. Unipolar, bipolar and multipolar neurons. Introduction - Neuron is defined as the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It is otherwise called nerves cells. Neuron is like any other cell in the body having a nucleus and all the organelles in the cytoplasm. o Unipolar neuron - The neuron which have only one pole are called unipolar neuron. From the single pole both processes, axon and dendrites arise. This type of nerve cell is present only in embryonic stage in human being. o Bipolar neuron - The neurons with two poles are known as bipolar neurons. Among two poles axon arise from one pole and dendrites from the other. o Multipolar neuron - These are the neurons which have many poles. One of the poles gives rise to the axon and all other poles to dendrites. Qu. 23. Describe the process of digestion in stomach and small intestine. Digestion in the stomach - The stomach performs three main functions i.e. storage, mechanical mixing and chemical digestion. In the stomach the gastric juice is secreted from the gastric glands, which is mixed with the food to produce a creamy acidic chyme. The chyme contains molecular fragments of protein and polysaccharide and droplets of fat. Gastric juice is strongly acidic and consists of 98% water, 0.5% HCl, the lubricant mucin, and the enzymes pepsin and lipase. In young children the substance rennin is also present. The food is partially digested in the stomach by both pepsin and some salivary amylase. A major component of food that is not dissolved by acid is fat. Hydrochloric acid provides the necessary pH for enzyme action, dissolves the particular matter in food, and also stops the action of saliva. It also kills the bacteria and the food is disinfected. In stomach the inactive pepsinogen is converted to active pepsin in presence of HCl. Pepsin acts on protein and forms simple protein called polypeptides. Lipase acts on small amount of lipid to produce fatty acids and glycerol. Rennin is active in stomach of babies and it clots the protein in milk i.e. soluble caseinogen into insoluble curds of protein casein. This is then acted upon by pepsin. Digestion in the small intestine - The active chyme from the stomach is released into the small intestine (duodenum) in spurts by relaxation of pyloric sphincter. By peristaltic contraction and relaxation, mechanical mixing of food takes place and the process of chemical digestion also begins. An alkaline pancreatic juice from the pancreas and bile from the liver is poured into the duodenum. Alkaline pancreatic juice helps to neutralize the acidic chyme and provide proper pH for enzyme action. Bile juice contains water, cholesterol, bile salts and bile pigments, which help to emulsify the fat in chyme. 1. Pancreatic juice - It has the following enzymes which help in digestion in intestine: o Amylase - Acts on stomach to form maltose. o Lipase - Converts lipid into fatty acids and glycerol. o Trypsinogen - Acts on protein. o Chymotrypsin - Acts on polypeptides. o Deoxyribonuclease Digests DNA into nucleotides. o Carboxypeptidase - Acts on amino acids. 2. Intestinal juice or succus entericus It is produced by glands in the wall of intestine, and the enzymes in it complete the process of food digestion in man. Enzymes in intestinal juice are: o Enterokinase - Converts trypsinogen to trypsin. o Maltase - Acts on maltose. o Sucrase - Acts on sucrose. o Lactase - Acts on lactose. o Aminopeptidase - Converts peptides into amino acids. o Dipeptidase - Converts dipeptides into amino acids. o Phosphatase - Changes nucleotides into nucleosides. o Intestinal lipase - Splits bile, emulsifies fats into fatty acids and glycerol. o o

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