Networking Model OSI

7.Application layer : It provides services directly to user applications. Because of the potentially wide variety of applications, this layer must provide a wealth of services. 6.Presentation layer : It performs data transformations to provide a common interface for user applications, including services such as reformatting, data compression and encryption. 5.Session layer : It establisheds, manages, and ends user connections and manages the interaction between end systems. Services include establishing communications and grouping data. 4.Transport layer : This layer provides error recovery and flow control between the two end points of the network connection. 3.Network layer : This layer establishes, maintains and terminates network connections. 2.Data-Link layer : It ensures the reliability of the physical link establishes at layer 1 . Standards define how data frames are recognised and provide necessary flow control and error handling at the frame level.

1. Physical layer : this layer controls transmission of the raw bitstream over the transmission medium. Standards for this layer define the duration of voltages(bits), amount of signal voltage swing and so on.

Some basic terminologies in networks:

Hub: A hub is a device for connecting multiple Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network segment. It has multiple input/output (I/O) ports, in which a signal introduced at the input of any port appears at the output of every port except the original incoming. A hub works at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. It does not examine or manage any of the traffic that comes through it: any packet entering any port is rebroadcast on all other ports. Effectively, it is barely aware of frames or packets and mostly operates on raw bits. Consequently, packet collisions are more frequent in networks connected using hubs than in networks connected using more sophisticated devices.

Switch : A switch is a telecommunication device which receives a message from

any device connected to it and then transmits the message only to that device for which the message was meant. This makes the switch a more intelligent device than a hub (which receives a message and then transmits it to all the other devices on its network.) The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. IP Address : An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.[1] An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. o Network address : This is the designation used in routing to send packets to a
remote network for example, 10.0.0.0,172.16.0.0 and 192.168.10.0 o Broadcast address: The address used by applications and hosts to send information to all nodes on a network is called the broadcast address. Examples include 255.255.255.255, which is all networks, all nodes; 172.16.255.255, which is all subnets and hosts on network 172.16.0.0.

Default gateway : In computer networking, a gateway is a node (a router) on

a TCP/IP network that serves as an access point to another network. A default gateway is the node on the computer network that the network software uses when an IP address does not match any other routes in the routing table. In

organizational systems a gateway is a node that routes the traffic from a workstation to another network segment. The default gateway commonly connects the internal networks and the outside network (Internet).

Subnetting : Subnetting is the process of designating some high-order bits from

the host part and grouping them with the network mask to form the subnet mask. This divides a network into smaller subnets. The following diagram modifies the example by moving 2 bits from the host part to the subnet mask to form a smaller subnet one fourth the previous size:
Binary form Dot-decimal notation

IP address

11000000.10101000.00000101.10000010

192.168.5.130

Subnet mask

11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000

255.255.255.192

Network prefix

11000000.10101000.00000101.10000000

192.168.5.128

Host part

00000000.00000000.00000000.00000010

0.0.0.2