biology

Crossbreeding refers to the process of breeding such an animal, often with the intention to create offspring that share the traits of both parent lineages, or producing an animal with hybrid vigor. While crossbreeding is used to maintain health and viability of animals, irresponsible crossbreeding can also [clarification needed] produce animals of inferior quality or dilute a purebred gene pool to the point ofextinction of a given breed of animal. Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in proximity. The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. Careful planning is required, taking into account the soil, climate, crops, and varieties. It is particularly important not to have crops competing with each other for physical space, nutrients, water, or ntercropping of compatible plants also encourages biodiversity, by providing a habitat for a variety ofinsects and soil organisms that would not be present in a single-crop environment.sunlight..intercropping also uses the practice of sowing a fast growing crop with a slow growing crop, so that the fast growing crop is harvested before the slow growing crop starts to mature. This obviously involves some temporal separation of the two crops. Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock. Techniques such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer are frequently used today, not only as methods to guarantee that females breed regularly but also to help improve herd genetics. This practice vastly increases the number of offspring which may be produced by a small selection of stud-quality parent animals. On the one hand, this improves the ability of the animals to convert feed to meat, milk, or fibre more efficiently, and improve the quality of the final product. On the other, it decreases genetic diversity, increasing the severity of disease outbreaks among other risks. The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone (O3). This layer absorbs 9799% of the Sun's high frequency ultraviolet light, which potentially [1] damages the life forms on Earth. It is mainly located in the lower portion of thestratosphere from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun. UV radiation is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400315 nm), UV-B (315 280 nm), and UV-C (280100 nm). UV-C, which would be very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by ozone at around 35 kilometres (115,000 ft) altitude. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth's surface. Nevertheless, some UV-B reaches the surface. Most UV-A reaches the surface; this radiation is significantly less harmful, although it can potentially cause genetic damage. The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine have increased markedly in recent years due to the release of large quantities of man-made organohalogencompounds,

especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) andbromofluorocarbons. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicalsare liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in the ozone molecules being unable to absorb ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet-B radiation is able to reach the Earths surface. Ozone levels over the northern hemisphere have been dropping by 4% per decade. Over approximately 5% of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as ozone holes. In 2009, nitrous oxide (N2O) was the largest ozone-depleting substance emitted through human activities. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy is transferred to the surface and the lower atmosphere. As a result, the average surface temperature is higher than it would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only [1][2] warming mechanism.

[4]

By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are: water vapor, 3670%

[16][17]

carbon dioxide, 926% methane, 49% ozone, 37%

The major non-gas contributor to the Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared [17] radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the atmosphere. In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or substance turnoveror cycling of substances is a pathway by which a chemical element ormolecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. A cycle is a series of [1 change which comes back to the starting point and which can be repeated.

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies

(e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers andgroundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the naturalbiological communities. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable sourcesm, such as a pipe or ditch.Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. Organic water pollutants include: Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking wate Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) Trichloroethylene

Perchlorate Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products

Inorganic water pollutants include: Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants) Ammonia from food processing waste Chemical waste as industrial by-products

Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphateswhich are found in stormwater runoff from [16] agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)
[16][17]

and acid mine drainage

Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites

Control of pollution

Domestic sewage
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineeringapproaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including: utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the [24] system, and reduce the hydraulicoverloading of the treatment plant repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
[15]

increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system

Industrial wastewater
Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with: cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating [25] purposes.

Construction site stormwater

Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of: erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.
[31]

Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of: spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls [32] and diversion berms.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that
cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to thenatural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulphur oxides (SOx) produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) -produced naturally duringthunderstorms by electrical discharge. Carbon monoxide (CO)- product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood Carbon dioxide (CO2) - emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration Volatile organic compounds Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Health effects
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions

Effects on cardiovascular health

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where [24] pollutant levels are highest. A recent study also found an association in women between air pollution [25 and ischemia, but not hemorrhagic stroke.

Effects on cystic fibrosis

patients near and around particulate matter air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary [27] exacerbations and decrease in lung function.

Effects on COPD and Asthma

increased risk of developing asthma pollution.
[30]

and COPD

[31]

from increased exposure to traffic-related air

Effects on children
high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate.

Reduction efforts
Particulate control