Core 2: The Body in Motion:

Unit 1: How do the musculoskeletal and cardio-respiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movement?
Skeletal System: Major Bones involved in movement: Identify the location and type of major bones involved in movement, e.g. long bones articulate at hinge joints for flexion and extension Human movement = result from a complex interaction between systems of human body. Interaction between nervous, muscular, respiratory system, bones and joints. The bones of the human body make up the skeleton, on which muscles act to produce movement. Average adult skeleton = 206 bones, 650 muscles and over 200 joints or articulations Baby = more than 300 bones Some fuse together during the normal growth process. Bone = living tissue that is constantly rebuilding itself. Containing fibres, blood vessels, minerals and nerves. Bones of the skeleton are extremely strong and support the body to give us our muscles Remain light, so that with the muscles attached, can provide movement Help to protect our internal organs; such as the heart, kidney and lungs Red blood cells and some white blood cells are produced within marrow in bones Provide the storage site for the minerals that the body needs; e.g. calcium, phosphorus and magnesium salts.

Joints in the human body: Immoveable or Fibrous joint: - Found between flat bones. Main function to protect vital organs. - E.g. 8 bones fused together by fibrous sutures to form cranium Slightly moveable or cartilaginous joint: - E.g. cartilage discs that lie between each of the vertebrae in human spine. - Offer some protection in absorbing shock but also allow limited range of movement Freely moveable or synovial joints: - Demonstrate wide range of movement capability. Critical in movement patterns adopted by athletes of all ages in sport and activities. (Gym, swimming etc)

Types of Bones: Long bones: - Longer than they are wide. Used for movement. Muscles pull on long bones and cause them to move. - Femur, humerus, tibia, radius, ulna, fibula, phalanges Short bones: - Cube like in appearance, being as long as they are wide. Provide limited gliding motion and primarily serve as shock absorbers. - Small bones of the hand and feet, the metacarpals & carpals, and metatarsals & tarsals Flat bones: - Thin bones that function to protect the tissues and organs of the body. Provide a large area for the attachment of muscles and tendons. Limited movement range - Cranium protects the brain; sternum protects the heart; ribs protect the lungs.

Irregular bones: - Irregular in shape. Many protrusions on an irregular bone serve to function as a site for muscle attachment - Vertebrae Seasmoid bones: - Small bones that are usually embedded within tendons. Protect the tendon from friction as it rubs against bony surfaces - Patella

Structure and Function of synovial joints: The place where two bones meet is called a joint, or an articulation Different types of joints found in the body allows for different degrees of movement Common feature = aid the efficiency of movement they provide. Allows for free movement + primarily involved in physical activity examples of synovial joints: knee, shoulder, ankle and elbow Structure of a synovial joint: Cartilage: covers the ends of the two meeting bones so that they slide smoothly over each other Synovial Membrane: tissue that lines the non-contact parts of the joint capsule. Secretes synovial fluid into joint. Covers all surfaces within joint capsule except those already covered by articular cartilage Synovial Fluid: Provides nourishment for the cartilage and lubricates the joints. This reduces friction. Ligament: strong, fibrous cord that attaches one bone to another. Provide stability of a joint, especially during movement Tendon: touch bands of connective tissue that join a muscle to a bone Ends of the bones in a synovial joint are covered with a thin layer of hyaline cartilage, called articular cartilage. Articular cartilage absorbs shocks and minimises friction = bone ends can easily glide across each other during movement Part of bone beneath cartilage also absorbs shock, so that it helps to protect the bone Joint capsule holds bones of a synovial joint together. Consists of an outer and inner layer. - Outer layer = composed of dense connective tissue and completely encloses the other parts of the joint - Inner layer = consists of a lining of loose connective tissue called synovial membrane Six types of synovial joints in the human body. Ball and socket joints at the hip and shoulder Hinged joints elbow and knee combine with bones of upper and lower limbs (produces bodys greatest range and speed of movement) Saddle joints joining carpal bone and metacarpal bone Pivot joints radius and ulna Gliding joints carpal bones Condyloid joints metacarpal bone + phalanx Some synovial joints contain additional structures: e.g. knee joint contains menisci (fibrous discs of cartilage) sit within joint capital between femur and the tibia and fibula. = help cusion shock and distribute body weight Bursae (fluid filled sacs associated with certain synovial joints) bursa has an inner lining of synovial membrane and contains synovial fluid. Cushion ligaments and tendons to protect them from friction and general wear and tear Balance between stability and mobility in synovial joints: - Lower limbs and vertebral column need to be more stable and have extra joint structures because of the need to absorb shock and carry weight of body Joints in upper limbs ball and socket are not as stable but allow greater range of movement

Joint actions: e.g. extension and flexion: When muscles exert force on bones, structure of joints allows diverse range of movement. Types of joint actions: Flexion and Extension - Flexion: bending movement that causes a decrease in the angle between the bones at the joint. E.g. bending the leg at the knee, upward phase of a biceps curl - Extension: the straightening movement that causes an increase in the angle between the bones at the joint. E.g. straightening the leg at the knee, downward phase of bicep curl Abduction and Adduction - Abduction: moving the body part in the lateral plane away from the mid-line of the body. E.g. performing a star jump, where person starts with legs and arms together and extending arms and legs so that they are apart in finish position - Adduction: moving body part in lateral plane back towards the midline of the body. E.g. completing star jump from arms and legs in a part position to finishing position arms and legs side by side and together. Inversion and Eversion - Inversion: rotation of the foot so that the sole turns inwards - Eversion: rotation of the foot so that the sole turns outwards Rotation: movement of a bone turning on a central axis. Full rotation is usually not possible because there are ligaments and muscles that restrict the movement. E.g. turning neck from one side to another Circumduction: combination of other movements that result in a circular or cone-like pattern. E.g. performing arm circles or softball pitchers wind up and release Pronation and Sunpination: - Pronation: movement when the radius rotates around the ulna = hand is facing with palm downwards - Sunpination: movement when the radius rotates around the ulna = hand is facing with palm upwards. E.g. putting hand out to receive change Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion - Dorsiflexion: the flexion of the ankle. E.g. Pulling toes back towards shin when stretching hamstring - Plantarflexion: extension of the foot at ankle joint. E.g. Dancer standing on toes Muscular System Major muscles involved in movement: Identify the location of the major muscles involved in movement and related joint actions Basis of all human movement is muscle action. Movement can be completed in two ways: When muscles contract or shorten, they pull on the bones to which they are attached. This moves the bones closer together When muscles relax or lengthen, they allow the bones to which they are attached to move apart Muscle consist of cells with contractile filaments that move past each other to change the size of the cell Three types of muscle: - Smooth - Skeletal - Cardiac Smooth & cardiac muscles = voluntary muscles that determine movement over which the human body has no control. E.g. heart beat, movement of food through digestive system Skeletal muscles = responsible for producing human movement, and groups of muscles in the human body work together to control movement patterns. Made up to densely packed muscle fibres along with many capillaries. Blood in these capillaries supplies the muscle with the oxygen and nutrients for contraction to occur

Main muscles in the body: - TEXTBOOK - Deltoid - Biceps Brachii - Triceps - Latissimus Dorsi - Trapezius - Pectorals: - Erector Spinae (sacrospinalis) - Gluteus Maximus

Hamstrings Quadriceps Gastrocnemius Soleus Tibialis Anterior Rectus Abdominus External Oblique

Muscle Relationship (Agonist, Antagonist, Stabiliser) Muscles work by generating tension that causes change within the cell Tension =causes muscle to shorten, lengthen or remain the same length A skeletal muscle attaches to one bone, extends across a joint and attaches to another bone. Where movement results the repeated contraction shortens the muscles length. Muscles pull on bones in direction of contraction = movement E.g Elbow Flexion caused by the shortening contraction of the biceps. Biceps attached to the scapula at the origin or fixed end and the radius at the insertion or moveable end. Bicep contracts = exert pressure on moveable end = movement of forearm towards upper arm Muscles involved in producing a movement can play 3 different roles Agonist Contracting muscle primarily involved in producing the movement E.g agonist involved in flexion of the leg at the knee joint is the hamstrings Antagonist Opposite muscle that relaxes during a movement E.g antagonist involved in flexion of the leg at the knee joint is the quadriceps Stabiliser Acts to stabilise a bone or body segment so that the agonist can work more efficiently Running action torso muscles (rectus abdominus and erector spinae) help keep the body in a stable position. Not however primarily involved in the running action Therefore: Muscles work in pairs to produce movement. As one muscle contracts (agonist), its opposite muscle relaxes (antagonist). This process is called inhibition

Types of muscle contraction (Concentric, eccentric, isometric) Body movement occurs when there is a shortening of a muscle with the agonist lengthening at the same time. Both agonist and antagonist will be contracting or creating tension The muscle can: Shorten ( called an Isotonic Concentric Contraction ) shortening contraction Lengthen ( called an Isotonic Eccentric Contraction ) antagonist will be lengthening but sill creating tension to control the movement. Contraction while extending Stay the same length ( called an Isometric Contraction ) working or creating tension without a charge in muscle length or body movement Occurs when muscle generates forced against a fixed resistance that does not move No significant change in the muscle length E.g. calf stretch against the wall; athlete performing a crouch start before a sprint with muscles tensed waiting for the starters gun Rock climbing

Respiratory System Analyse the various aspects of lung function through participation in a range of physical activities Structure and Function In order to function all body cells require oxygen delivered via the blood . Plays a significant role in human movement Short, sharp movements over a limited time span or repeated movements over a long period of time, lungs have a role to play Key features of the human respiratory system: mouth, nose, trachea, lungs, diaphragm Respiratory system: - Supplies the blood with oxygen through the breathing process and remove carbon dioxide and waster products from the blood - Breath in oxygen is inhaled - Breath out carbon dioxide exhaled - Exchange of gases is the respiratory systems means of getting oxygen to the blood When humans breathe in (inhale), oxygen enters the respiratory system through the mouth and the nose Inhaled breathe then passes through the larynx (where speech sounds are produced) and the trachea (main tube entering the chest cavity) Chest cavity trachea splits into two smaller tubes called bronchi Bronchus divides forming bronchial tubes Bronchial tubes smaller tubes (bronchioles) = connect tiny air sacs called alveoli 600 million sponge like alveoli in a healthy human lung Alveoli thin walls, oxygen exchange takes place. Oxygen inhaled pass through thin wall and into blood stream + poisonous CO2 passes back through the lung through wall of alveoli Control of the breathing action is done by the muscular diaphragm, which lies across the bottom of the chest cavity Diaphragms job to help pump the carbon dioxide out of the lunch and create space to allow oxygen to flow into the lungs. Muscle responsible for breathing. Normally involuntary do not have to consciously think about breathing Diaphragm contracts oxygen is drawn into the lungs Diaphragm relaxes carbon dioxide is pushed out of the lungs (exhale) Ability to make use of atmospheric oxygen + remove poisonous carbon dioxide from body = significant impact on bodys ability to move efficiently Poor lung efficiency = contribute to muscle fatigue + build up of lactic acid and inhibit movement patterns Efficiency of respiratory system = big impact on human performance (e.g perform well in endurance sport triathlon, marathon running etc)

Lung Function (Inspiration & Expiration ) Inspiration and expiration controlled by differences in air pressure Expiration: Inspiration: - Breathing out - Breathing in - Diaphragm and ribs return to their at-rest state - Diaphragm contracts and rubs move up and out - Decreases the size of the chest cavity a little = enlarges chest cavity - Pressure inside the lungs = high - Chest cavity = bigger = pressure within lungs - Air forces out of the lunch decreases Air moves from an area of high pressure low pressure = air is drawn into the lungs

Number of measures used to determine lung function (vary from simple analysis of how puffed thelete feels after performing a set amount of work through to sophisticated scientific measures of lung capacity and gas exchange)

Function of each part of the respiratory system: Structure Nose Function Structure Sticky surface Trachea Covered with tiny hairs called Cilia traps dust particles Dust particles moved towards the nose entrance to be sneezed out Air moves into the mouth and the nose where it is warmed, filtered and humidified Lungs Function Also called the windpipe Major airway to the lungs & strengthened by cartilage rings Moves down into chest = divide into bronchi There are 2 lungs that are cone-shaped and made of elastic tissue Protected by; sternum, ribs and spine Play a role in gas exchange and transport of oxygen Two bronchus extend from the trachea. One bronchus goes to each lung Once in the lungs, bronchus divide into smaller branches called bronchiole Bronchioles = divide until tiny sacs called alveoli. Elastic thin walled structures covered densely in capillaries containing blood. Major role in gaseous exchange

Mouth Pharynx

Larynx

Is the throat Carries food as well as air Food continues down oesophagus Bronchus Air continues down to the trachea Epiglottis = flap = stops food from going down to the trachea Voice box Bronchiole Play large role in the production of human speech Alveoli Air expelled from lungs moves past = vocal chords vibrate = produces sound

Exchange of gases (internal, external) Gas exchange occurs between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in the capillaries A substance moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration Alveoli in the lungs have a high level of oxygen while blood in the capillaries = low level of oxygen Oxygen in alveoli moves across into blood in capillaries delivered back to the heart to undergo systemic circulation Blood in capillaries = high level of carbon dioxide while there is a low level of carbon dioxide in the alveoli Carbon dioxide in blood moves across into the alveoli moved back through respiratory system to be exhaled Circulatory System: Analyse the movement of blood throughout the body and the influence of the circulatory and respiratory systems on movement efficiency and performance. Components of blood Circulatory or cardiovascular system consist of the heart, blood vessels and blood Major function = transport nutrients, oxygen and water to body cells + remove waste products from body cells + human movement Blood = vital role in human health + wellbeing (blood test = determine health problems) Blood is a fluid tissue. Material between the cells of the blood is called plasma = makes up about 55% pf the blood volume Other 45% of cellular component contains: red cells, white cells and platelets. Red blood cells - Carry the protein haemoglobin (iron rich component that transports oxygen around the body) =

- Gives blood its colour and can combine with oxygen - Enables blood to carry oxygen from lungs to tissue. - Produced in the red bone marrow. Also called erythrocytes White blood cells = protect body against bacteria, disease, infection. Do this by ingesting invading materials such as bacteria and toxins. Produce antibodies directly destroy invading agents. Produced in the bone marrow and lymph nodes. Also called leucocytes Plasma = makes up more than blood volume + 90% water. Yellowish fluid, carries nutrients, minerals, water, hormones, proteins and waste products Platelets = tiny cell fragments which aid in the clotting of blood in event of cut or injured. Initiate a reaction whereby protein strands form a mesh that traps red blood cells stops blood flowing freely from an injury site

The Blood: Critical role in functioning of the human body Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones and enzymes to the body cells Transports carbon dioxide and waste products from the body cells to the organs that eliminate them Regulates acid-alkali balance within body Maintains body temp Regulates water content of cells Protects body from infection Protects body from blood loss through clotting

The heart: Major organ of the circulatory system and composed of cardiac muscle Involuntary muscle = acts as a pump, transporting blood throughout the body Located in the centre of the chest between the lungs + protected by sternum, ribs and spinal column Shape of a bear, size of clenched fist

Structure and function of the heart, arties, veins, capillaries Heart = composed of 4 chambers - 2 chambers on the left = make up one pump - 2 chambers on the right = make up another pump - Upper chambers each side of the heart = left and right atria - Lower chambers = left and right ventricles - Ventricle walls = stronger and thicker than atria walls = ventricles have to pump blood under high pressure away from heart

Pulmonary and systemic circulation Heart is a complex muscular organ that regulates life by controlling the flow of blood around the body Circulatory system = way blood is circulated around the body Heart muscle contracts and forces blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery Blood offloads carbon dioxide in the lungs and becomes enriched with oxygen then returns to the heart through the pulmonary vein Oxygen rich blood, travels to the aorta and out to the rest of the body through a complex series of arteries and smaller capillaries It is along with these capillaries that nutrients pass to body cells and waste products are returned to blood Blood then returns to the heart through a series of larger vessels called veins Pulmonary circulation occurs at the right side of the heart

The Superior Vena Cava Brings deoxygenated blood to the heart from the upper body Inferior Vena Cava Brings deoxygenated blood to the heart from the lower body Right Atrium Receives blood that has been around the body Left Atrium Receives blood from the lungs and pushed blood into the left ventricle Semi-Lunar Valves Stop blood flowing from the arties back into ventricles Atrioventricular valves Stop backflow of blood from ventricles to the atria Right Ventricle Pumps blood to lungs Thinner wall only pumps blood to lungs Blood pressure

Left Ventricle Pumps blood to all parts of the body (except lungs) More muscle in wall pump blood all over body Aorta Takes oxygenated blood to the body Pulmonary Arteries Takes deoxygenated blood to the lungs Pulmonary Veins Brings oxygenated blood to the heart from the lungs The heart has two thin-walled chambers that receive blood - The atria And two thick-walled pumping chambers - The ventricles

Circulation of blood is controlled by regular contractions of the heart muscle. Pressure of blood in the arteries as it is circulated through Depends on how much blood is being pumped through the heart and the resistance of blood vessels to blood flow High blood pressure = heart must work harder to keep enough blood flowing through the body Efficient heart may bean at 60-65 beats per minute while are rest. When a person exercises or comes under strain, the heart responds by beating faster to circulate oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products Heart contracts and beats = pressure of blood against walls of the arteries and veins increase Blood pressure can be measured using simple pressure gauges = measure pressure of blood against the walls of an artery at two points Highest reading is the pressure of blood against the artery walls when the heart contracts Lowest reading is the pressure when the contraction is completed and the blood flow is at its weakest, for example 120/80 mm of mercury (mmHg) Highest reading = systolic blood pressure = heart contracts or squeezes pushing the blood out Lowest reading diastolic blood pressure. = heart relaxes and fills again with blood

UNIT 2: What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency?
Health Related Components of Physical Fitness: Physical fitness = different meanings for different people. Those fitness components needed for general health and daily tasks are known as health-related fitness components One way of looking at the components of fitness is to look at those that relate to health and those that have a skill component The five health-related components of fitness are categorised to levels of a persons general health Each component plays an important part in developing an overall sense of wellness and wellbeing: Cardiorespiratory endurance Muscular strength Muscular endurance Flexibility Body composition Fitness level

Cardiorespiratory endurance Or aerobic endurance = measure of the ability of a persons lungs, heart and blood vessels to supply oxygen to the working muscles of the body; also refers to the ability of the working muscles and other organs to utilise this oxygen. Fitness of the heart (cardio) and lungs (respiratory) Can make a significant impact on daily living. Without it = person will commonly experience feelings of tiredness + fatigue Higher level of cardio-respiratory endurance = longer daily tasks or exercise can be performed. Exercising cardio-respiratory system strengthens it, particularly the heart muscle = reduces risk of certain diseases (e.g. coronary heart disease) Major component of fitness from activities such as distance running, road cycling, other physical undertakings that require continuous movement for extended periods of time Team sports: football, basketball, netball + hockey = require strong aerobic base

Muscular strength Ability to exert force in order to overcome a resistance. Helps person not feel muscular tiredness or fatigue Required for carrying a heavy school bag or moving furniture Good muscle strength = help make each task easier + prevent injury to body Strength can be applied in a variety of ways depending on the sport or even the specific game situation e.g. basketball player may need to apply core strength to block out an opponent in a rebounding contest, apply different strength to pass the ball or sprint to other side of the court. Strength = major component of power Eg. Gymnastics, weightlifting and wrestling

Muscular endurance Define as the ability of the muscles to perform repeated contractions against a load or resistance Some muscle may contract countless numbers of times in activities such as walking Ability to keep going without muscle fatigue is important to overall health Level of resistance that muscles have to work against is an important feature in determining muscular endurance

E.g. person who continually walks up hills or trains muscles using lots of repetition with light weight may build up high levels of muscular endurance Some sports : long distance running, swimming, rowing, canoeing and cycling. 4 x 15 minute quarters Athletes who compete in sports such as tennis or squash require specific muscular endurance in their legs, wrist, forearms and upper body.

Flexibility Range of motion around a joint and can make an important contribution to the way people feel Stiffness and tightness in joints can limit and individuals freedom of movement and contribute to injury of bones, tendons and muscles Joint is where two or more bones meet, the tendons and ligaments and muscles encapsulating the joint can restrict this rand of movement and limit the effectiveness of movements Decreases with age. Maintained with regular exercise and stretching routines Good flexibility = aids in mobility = reduces chance of muscle fibre tears and ligament strains Particular significance in some sports e.g. competitive gymnastics and dancing = performer will be able to undertake the skill of the required movement patterns e.g. tennis player with good shoulder flexibility would be able to take the racquet back further and generate more speed.

Body composition Human body is composed of bones, muscle, fat and other essential internal organs such as the brain, heart, kidney and liver, all of which have specific functions Balance between fat, muscle and other components is important for health and wellbeing Body needs a certain level of fat for metabolism and energy shortage, but if a person has too much fat or adipose tissue it can impair their fitness levels and impacts on overall status of health High % of body fat = risk of disease = heart disease and diabetes = more difficult to carry everyday tasks without feeling tired = place in overweight or obese category Females have over 20% body fat, males with over 10% are at significant health risks

Fitness level Allows us to measure an athletes ability in individual components of performance. Programs = designed to focus on those factors needing improvement, while maintaining standards in others

Analyse the relationship between physical fitness and movement efficiency. Students should consider the question to what degree is fitness a predictor of performance? Common perception that fitness automatically equates to good performance in physical activity and fitness automatically equates with good health Physical performance in elite sport, dance, gym or aquatics relies on high levels of specific fitness depending on the activity. Elite performers in a specialist domain may well struggle physically to perform in another sport. Fitness can be quite specific to an event and may not apply as well to another event The skill component of any task also needs to be considered carefully when analysing movement performance Skill Related Components of Physical Fitness: Fitness components can be seen as an extension of the health-related components of fitness because they tend to be more related to human performance than everyday health needs. These are:

 Power:

Power Speed Agility Coordination Balance Reaction time

Muscular power = ability to exert maximum force in the shortest possible time Combination of strength and speed Significant part of throwing events such as: E.g. discuss, shot put and javelin. Team sports; volleyball, basketball. Sprinting up a hill or to the finish line in athletics

Speed: The ability of the muscles to contract quickly Fast movement of body parts Individuals speed is often determined by the muscle fibre they are born with Humans =combination of fast twitch muscle fibres and slow twitch fibres. Compare them to those found in a chicken. Fast twitch fibres of the wings of a chicken look very different from the slow twitch fibres in the breast Strong genetic influence on an athletes speed Born with high percentage of fast twitch muscle fibres = genetic potential to be quicker than an athlete who has a high percentage of slow twitch fibres Can be improved with training = improving technique and skill = improves muscle memory Better results and times will be misinterpreted as increases in speed; whereas increased strength gains are actually making the athlete more powerful

Agility: Ability to change direction or body positions quickly while still maintaining balance Contains a number of skill related components Power, speed, balance, coordination and even reaction time are important components of agility Most team sports that focus on space and possession require athletes to be agile E.g. skiing, gymnastics, tennis, dancing and ice skating. Contact sports: boxing, wrestling, martial arts

Coordination: Result of the interaction between the bodys sense of perception and the central nervous system Good level of coordination results in movements that appear to be smooth and flowing Can be practiced so that the neutral pathways between the brain and body parts are established, which lead to learnt movement memory patterns Once movement patterns established athlete can concentrate on piecing other areas of the skill or movement together E.g. passing and catching in rugby, netball and basketball (hand to eye coordination) Soccer requires high levels of foot to eye coordination. Dance and aerobics need good levels of coordination between body parts to appear smooth and pleasing

Balance: Ability of the body to maintain its equilibrium Equilibrium lost = person falls over or loses control of their body parts momentarily Balance = important component of agility and coordination Can be static or dynamic Static = bodys equilibrium is held in a fixed of stationary position. E.g. handstand in gymnastics/ set position in a 100m sprint Dynamic = athlete can maintain their equilibrium while moving. E.g. running. Very significant in activities where environment is unpredictable. E.g surfing, water skiing, running with ball in hand

Reaction Time: Time it takes to react to an external stimulus External stimulus = starting gun or whistle, ball pitched, bowled at a batter in softball, cricket or baseball. Start of a swimming race = good example at gauging different reaction times because there is a time lag between the starting gun and entry into the water

Measure and analyse a range of both health related and skill related components of physical fitness:
Most accurate measures are done under controlled conditions using specialist scientific equipment that can provide extremely accurate data about an individuals performance Range of easy field tests = provide strong predictions of fitness levels for individual athletes

Measuring cardiorespiratory endurance: Using various tests, including the multi-stage fitness test and the 1.6km run Results gained can be compared to averages according to age and gender Tests are measuring the ability of the muscles to utilise oxygen that has been breathed in during exercise

Measuring muscular strength Number of tests including the grip strength test. Using the hand grip dynamometer to determine hand and forearm strength Strength = specific to muscle groups, so a comprehensive battery of tests would be needed to determine the overall strength of an individual

Measuring Muscular Endurance: The push up and sit up test in 30 seconds. Complete as many sit ups/ push ups in 30 seconds as possible

Measuring Flexibility: The sit and reach test Slide indicator as far forward as they can, holding position for 2-3 seconds

Measuring Body Composition: Using sophisticated computer imaging, or simpler estimate that is used is the BMI (body mass index). Calculated by dividing the weight of a person in kg by their height (meters) squared Another is the skinfold test using skinfold callipers This measures the size of subcutaneous fat deposits under the skin

Measuring power: The standing long jump test or the standing vertical jump test Subject bends their knees to perform a squat and jumps as far forward landing on both feet.

Measuring speed: Measured number of ways Most use light gates or stopwatches to measure the time taken to cover a short distance to estimate speed E.g. sprint over 20m, 50m pass through light gates or a 25m swim sprint

Measuring coordination: The alternate hand wall toss Throw a tennis ball to the wall with one hand and catch it on the full with the other hand. This has to be done in 30 seconds

Measuring reaction time: The rule drop test Requiring a partner = drops and aligns the ruler Subject sits at the desk, rests forearms on the desk with hands past edge of the desk Subject catches the ruler and the score is read at the point in cm where the ruler was caught by the pinching action of the thumb and index finger

Measuring balance: The stork stand. Subject lifts one leg up and bends the knee so that the sole of the foot is resting on the knee of the support leg. When starting subject lifts foot off leg and balances on one leg. Aerobic and Anaerobic Training: Aerobic fitness = significant component of good overall health and plays a significant part in many sports and physical activities. Marathon runners and triathletes, aerobic conditioning will be the basis of most of their training. Energy is derived aerobically when oxygen is used to contribute to the production of energy . Events that required high levels of endurance rely highly on aerobic energy Aerobic training targets an athletes endurance capacity by targeting improvement in delivery of oxygen to working cells Examples of aerobic activities: walking, jogging, running, swimming, cross country skiing The critical feature of aerobic activity is continuous activity over a medium to long period of time E.g. marathon runners will do most of their training as running, while cross training by doing swimming or cycling will provide some benefit, but specific running endurance training is needed to get improvement Anaerobic training is training that is done when insufficient oxygen is delivered to working muscles This training tends to be shorts and more intense; and usually puts the body under greater stress Enables improvement in anaerobic capacity E.g. sprint repetitions, wind sprints and lots of sharp, short bursts of activity with short rest spells are typical of anaerobic training. Athletes involved in strength and power activities football, basketball, volleyball, running events under 800m and swimming under 100m, utilise anaerobic energy sources to supply the majority of their required energy.

FITT Principle:

Design an aerobic training session based on the FITT Program

Provides a useful framework for developing physical training programs, particular when aiming to achieve improved aerobic fitness. The key determinants of success or improvements in fitness are: - F: frequency of training Training must be more than a one-off event Body needs to undergo some stress or overload to for changes to take place Minimum is 3 sessions per week of moderate physical activity and ideally five or six sessions per week Training would need to be regular with each muscle group exercised at least every couple of days to get improvement - I: intensity of training Refers to how hard an athlete is working in any one session Concentrate on different muscle groups each session to allow recovery and rest Needs to be a balance between finding enough intensity to overload the body but not so much that it causes overtraining Workload can have 3 components: 1. The amount of weight lifted during an exercise 2. The number of repetitions completed for a particular exercise 3. The length of time to complete all exercises in a set or total training session Increase workload by lifting heavier weights; increase the number of repetitions with the same weight. - T: type of training Refers to the method used to improve fitness Aerobic fitness the types of training activities usually referred to are walking, running, cycling, swimming and rowing For resistance training, training types such as free weights, weight machines resistance bands and bodyweight can be used - T: time of training How long an individual should exercise for Lower fitness levels aim to maintain their heart rate within the target rate zone for a minimum of 20-30 mins Can increase to 45-60m Duration of program as a whole e.g. minimum of 6 weeks

Compare the relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic training for different sports e.g. gymnastics versus soccer
Any exercise or physical activity is usually a combination of aerobic and anaerobic activity E.g. gentle jog = body will work anaerobically or without sufficient oxygen until the body systems adjust to the increased workload. Possible to determine the dominant energy system in most sports or physical activity and thus focus training on that aspect of performance There is a need for aerobic training in most sport or physical activity because aerobic fitness provides a general feeling of wellbeing and gets the body working efficiently without excess fatigue Need for a combination of training such as in a field team game like soccer, hockey or Australian rules football, these players will need high levels of aerobic training, particularly at the start of the season to get a base of overall fitness

Players will also require a range of anaerobic training to allow effective participation in the game. Components such as strength for jumping and sprinting, speed for effective game movement and flexibility to manage a wide range of movements will also be required. Aerobic training benefits cardorespiratory function and decreases body fat and allows an individual to engage in moderate activity for extended periods of time Valuable for many sports Anaerobic activity can also benefit cardorespiratory function and decreases body fat but is also able to produce big improvements in power, speed, strength and muscle mass. It allows us to exert tremendous forces over a very brief time Immediate Physiological Responses to training

Examine reasons for the changing patterns of respiration and heart rate during and after sub maximal physical activity
Stroke Volume / Cardiac Output / Lactate Levels: Human bodys capacity to function effectively in a wide range of physical activities results from its capacity to adapt and respond to different types of training FITT principal = frequency, intensity, type and time of training can be manipulated to get different results Body responds to long term training = short term physiological responses to training - Heart Rate: number of contraction (beats) that the heart makes in a set time e.g. 60 beats per min immediate change: increases - Ventilation rate: number of inhalations or breathes made in a set time e.g. 60breaths/min. Immediate Change = Increases - Stroke volume: the amount of blood pumped in any one contraction (or beat) of the heart. Immediate Change = Increases - Cardiac output: the rate of blood pumped by the heart in a period of time e.g. 4.8L/m Immediate Change = Increases - Lactate levels: lactic acid is a by product made by muscles when there is insufficient oxygen available to produce aerobic energy. Lactic acid causes the burning sensation in hard working muscles. Immediate Change = Increase if activity is anaerobic or higher intensity

Heart Rate / Ventilation Rate: The key changes in heart rate and ventilation that occur during training are usually easily observed or felt by an athlete These changes occur because of the demands that training places on muscles and other cells During exercise, the individuals sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems gradually change the heart rate through the release of hormones and other chemical messengers As muscles demand more energy, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, blood pressure and breathing After exercise, or during a rest period, the parasympathetic nervous system gently applies the brakes and brings the heart rate back down to resting beat Due to the changes taking place in the working muscles, the lungs and the rest of the respiratory system need to provide more oxygen for the blood The rate and depth of breathing will increase because of these changes Sympathetic nerves stimulate the respiratory muscle to increase the rate of breathing Metabolic by-products from muscles such as lactic acid in the blood stimulate the respiratory centres in the brain, which, in turn, further stimulates the respiratory muscles

Blood pressure = increase slightly = increased force of each heartbeat and by the elevated cardiac output and then fluctuate as the body adjusts and recovers from exercise The increase in blood pressure opens blood flow to more air sacs in the lungs; and this increases the ventilation and allows more oxygen to enter the blood As the lungs absorb more oxygen and the blood flow to the muscles increases the muscles have more oxygen

Chapter 3: How do Biomechanical Principles Influence Movement? Motion: Conduct a series of simple movement workshops to analyse the effect technique has one linear motion, speed, velocity, acceleration and momentum. Motion: Speed: Velocity: Distance: Displacement: Acceleration: