TRAINING REPORT ON

GLOBAL POSTIONING SYSTEM (GPS) AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Submitted by Anurag Sharma B.Tech. (5th Semester) Electronics and Communication Engineering Manav Rachna College of Engineering Prepared at:
Defense Terrain Research Laboratory
DRDO, MINISTRY OF DEFENCE METCALFE HOUSE, DELHI -110054 YEAR-2009

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT PROJECT is the product of experience that goes along way on shaping up persons caliber. The experience and success one attains is not by oneself but with a group of kind hearts behind. I greatly overwhelmed with joy and guidance towards each and every one, who has extend their valuable support and full co-operation during the term of software development. During our rough time we really needed somebody to remind us that there is likely to be light at the end of tunnel. I am highly thankful to Mr. Badreenath K. Takale (Project Guide), who guided me all through this project. His suggestion and interest has helped us in integrated the work. His accommodating nature and tolerance towards our persistent queries provided the best possible solution to our problems. I am also thankful to Mr. Sunil Dhar ( Scientist E), Deputy Director , DTRL for his valuable support and guidance. This acknowledgement would remain incomplete if I dont mention my special heart felt thanks and express my gratitude to my Parents. Its a very useful project with a lot of potential for its users.

ANURAG SHARMA TRAINEE FIFTH SEMESTER B. TECH.

ABSTRACT
GPS technology is one of the significant inventions of the twentieth century. GPS has become a popular device in western countries but has not yet reached the household of the common man in India. With globalization, GPS and its related technology has been unable to penetrate the heart of Indian consumers. This thesis studies what are the factors that prevent GPS from being used widely in India. The problems faced by GPS/GIS vendors in tapping the GPS market in India are also addressed through my hypotheses. Appropriate recommendations, made after conducting a literature review and survey analysis for this research are also included. Background of the Research The Global Positioning System (GPS) has revolutionized the field of navigation all over the world. Initially created just for military uses, to locate ground forces and to direct their movements with accurate precision as to their destinations, GPS now is available everywhere for commercial use. GPS: It is a 24-hour, all weather, and space based navigation system to accurately determine position, velocity and time in a common reference frame, anywhere on or near the earth on a continuous basis. The GPS system consists of three major segments viz., space segment, control segment and user segment (n.d.). A fleet of 24 satellites manages all these GPS applications, located 11,000 nautical miles above the earth. From sailors and pilots to hikers and hill climbers, from construction equipment and farm machinery to laptop computers, and soon to wristwatches -- it's helping us figure out where we are and where we're going. GPS is still a very sophisticated and complex technology. To make it successful and acceptable worldwide, it must be simple and easy to use. The GPS vendors in India understand that they need to provide simple, low cost and reliable GPS solutions in the future. Initially, GPS focused on high end users and high precision, but today the GPS

industry is passing through a transition phase and is concentrating on the production of low cost, low precision, easy to use and still reliable GPS instruments. A countrys policies and basic infrastructure play crucial roles in the nurturing of new technology like GPS and its various dependent technologies, like GIS. Equal and fair competition between the local as well as International GPS vendors will enhance the growth of GPS market throughout India. In comparison to the US, GPS is not very prominent among the common people in India. It may be due to the vast differences in the standard of living between the US and India. In the developed countries it is common to have a GPS in most cars, while in India it is not feasible due to the high cost. The exchange rate, i.e., conversion from dollar to rupee, taxes and custom duties makes the US-made cheap GPS handset a privileged commodity in India. Objective of the Research In India, GPS technology is in the beginning stage. Social awareness is the important issue, which needs to be addressed so that GPS service will become popular in India. For example, it is essential to increase awareness about the use of GPS and GIS in the public, private and the Non- Governmental Organization (NGO) sectors in India. Many seminars are being conducted by organizations like National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and Center for Spatial Database Management and Solutions (CSDMS) to facilitate interaction amongst experts and senior decision makers in the country regarding the importance of GPS and its applications. Such seminars help to enlighten the corporate world about GPS technology. It is time for India to prepare itself well for GPS.

ORGANIZATION PROFILE

ABOUT DTRL:
Defense Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL) is the only laboratory under Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO), which is responsible for developing the state of the art tools and techniques for terrain evaluation. The laboratory is making the extensive use of high-resolution visible band and microwave remote sensing imageries for near real-time extraction and integration of terrain parameters.

THRUST AREAS:
The main thrust areas of research are as follows: Image processing Geographic Information System (GIS) Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) Soft-Computing

Pattern Recognition

Cellular Automata Photogrammetry Data Mining Case Based Reasoning (CBR)

HISTORY

Initiation of terrain evaluation activities in DRDO began with the creation In recognition of the significance of terrain intelligence, TEC was accorded

of Terrain Evaluation Cell (TEC) on 19th February 1964.

the status of a full fledged laboratory on 10th December 1981, and was renamed as Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL)

DTRL was notified a self-accounting unit on 17th September 1998.

VISION AND MISSION VISION To become a technological leader in producing high resolution terrain intelligence products for defense applications. MISSION Develop expertise and technologies for terrain database management. Create and update thematic maps and terrain intelligence reports for the users.

CHARTER OF DUTIES To develop a reliable system for prediction of terrain characteristics and derivation of military potential of various types of terrains based on modern techniques of terrain evaluation. To develop infrastructure, competence and instrumentation in the latest techniques related to terrain research. To evolve terrain data storage and retrieval system for use by Defence Services. To propagate the techniques of terrain evaluation in Defence Services and conduct training in this field.

CONTENT
Part I 1. Introduction

1.1 Definition Of GPS 1.2 Importance Of GPS..

2. Design Of GPS System

2.1 Space Segment. 2.2 Control Segment 2.3 User Segment. 2.4 Signal Structure..

3. Working Of GPS
3.1 Triangulating.. 3.2 Measuring Distance. 3.3 Getting Perfect Timings... 3.4 Satellite Positions.

4. Operating Concepts Of GPS

4.1 Satellite Signals 4.2 C/A Code.. 4.3 P(Y) Code..

5. Field Manual
5.1 Navigation Message. 5.2 Signal Acquisition 5.3 Satellite Ranging..

6. Accuracy of GPS
6.1 Dilution Of Precision

7. Errors Occurring In GPS

7.1 Selective Availability 7.2 Atmospheric Effects.. 7.3 Multipath Effects.... 7.4 Ephermesis And Clock Errors

8. Differential GPS
8.1 Why Do We Need Differential GPS............... 8.2 How Differential GPS Works 8.3 Where Do You Get Differential Corrections.

9. Applications of GPS
(A) Military.. (B) Civilian..

9.1 Navigation 9.2 Location 9.3 Tracking 9.4 Mapping 9.5 Timing 9.6 Cadastral Surveying, GIS 9.7 Remote Sensing 9.8 Geodesy 9.9 Geo-referencing

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition Of GPS

The global positioning system (GPS) is a worldwide radio-navigation system formed from a constellation of 24 satellites and their ground stations. GPS uses these man made stars as reference points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters . In fact with advanced forms of GPS you can make measurements to better than a centimeter. In a sense it is like giving every square meter on the planet a unique address. GPS receivers have been miniaturized to just a few integrated circuits and so are becoming very economical. And that makes the technology accessible to virtually everyone. These days GPS is finding its way into cars, boats planes, construction equipment, movie making gear, farm machinery, even laptop computers. Soon GPS will become almost as basic as the telephone. Indeed I think it just may become a universal utility.

Importance Of GPS

Trying to figure out where you are and where you are going is probably one of mans oldest pastimes.

Navigation and positioning are crucial to so many activities and yet the process has always been quite cumbersome. Over the years all kinds of technologies have tried to simplify the task but every one has had some disadvantage. As given below Landmarks Only work in local area. Subject to movement or destruction by environmental factors. Example : big oak tree on the side of the road Dead reckoning : Very complicated. Accuracy depends on measurement tools which are usually relatively crude. Errors accumulate quickly. Example : a piece of land or fix location Celestial : Complicated. Only works at night in good weather. Limited precision. Example: looking at Big Dipper at night. OMEGA : Based on relatively few radio direction beacons. Accuracy limited and subject to radio interference. Example: as of September 30, 1997, the OMEGA navigation system terminated. LORAN : Limited coverage( mostly coastal ). Accuracy variable, affected by geographic situation. Easy to jam or disturb. Example: LORAN (long range navigation). SatNav: Based on low frequency doppler measurements so it is sensitive to small movements at receiver. Few satellites so updates are infrequent. Example: satellite navigation system.

1.

DESIGN OF GPS SYSTEM

The Navigation Satellite Time and Ranging (NAVSTAR) Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite radio navigation system developed by the U. S. Department of Defense (DoD). GPS receivers provide land, marine, and airborne users with continuous three dimensional (3D) position, velocity, and time data (PVT). This information is available free of charge to an unlimited number of users. The system operates under all weather conditions, 24 hours a day, anywhere on Earth. The GPS system consists of (1) the space segment, (2) the control segment, and (3) the user segment.

2.1 Space Segment:

Unlaunched GPS satellite on display at the San Diego Aerospace museum The space segment consists of a nominal constellation of 24 operational satellites (including 3 spares) that have been placed in 6 orbital planes 10,900 miles (20,200 kilometers [km]) above the Earths surface. The satellites are in circular orbits with a 12-hour orbital period and an inclination angle of 55 degrees. This orientation provides a minimum of five satellites in view at any time anywhere on Earth. Each satellite continuously broadcasts two low-power, spread spectrum, RF Link signals (L1 and L2). The L1 signal is centered at 1575.42 megahertz (MHz), and the L2 signal is centered at 1227.6 MHz. The space segment (SS) comprises the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three circular orbital planes, but this was modified to six planes with four satellites each. The orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the distant stars. The six planes have approximately 55 inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60 right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on Earth's surface.

2.2 Control Segment:

The control segment consists of a Master Control Station (in Colorado Springs) and a number of monitor stations at various locations around the world. Each monitor station tracks all the GPS satellites in view and passes the signal measurement data back to the

Master Control Station. Computations are performed at the Master Control Station to determine a precise satellite ephemeris and satellite clock errors. These data are then uplinked to the individual satellites and, subsequently, rebroadcast by the satellite as part of a navigation data message.

2.3 User Segment:

The user segment is all GPS receivers and their application support equipment such as antennas and processors. This equipment allows users to receive, decode, and process the information necessary to obtain accurate position, velocity, and timing measurements. These data are used by the receivers support equipment for specific application requirements.

Basic concept of GPS A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by the GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages containing the time the message was sent, precise orbital information (the ephemeris), and the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac). The receiver measures the transit time of each message and computes the distance to each satellite. Geometric trilateration is used to combine these distances with the location of the satellites to determine the receiver's location. The position is displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units also show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes. It might seem three satellites are enough to solve for position, since space has three dimensions. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of lightthe speed at which satellite signals propagateresults in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for x, y, z, and t, which is used to correct the receiver's clock. While most GPS applications use the computed location only and effectively hide the very accurately computed time, it is used in a few specialized GPS applications such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations.

Position calculation introduction Using messages received from a minimum of four visible satellites, a GPS receiver is able to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of position and the time sent are designated as where the subscript i is the satellite number and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated time the message was received , the GPS receiver can compute the indicated transit time, . of the message. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled, can be computed as . Knowing the distance from GPS receiver to a satellite and the position of a satellite implies that the GPS receiver is on the surface of a sphere centered at the position of a satellite. Thus we know that the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver will be at an intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. The surfaces of two spheres, if they intersect in more than one point, intersect in a circle. A figure, Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a Circle, is shown below.

Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle The article, trilateration, shows mathematically that the surfaces of two spheres, intersecting in more than one point, intersect in a circle. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest intersect at two points, although it is conceivable that they could intersect at zero points, one point, or in the very special case in which the centers of the three spheres are collinear (i.e. all three on the same straight line) the sphere surface could intersect the entire circumference of the circle. Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, shows this intersection. The two intersections are marked with dots. Again trilateration clearly shows this mathematically. The correct position of the GPS receiver is the intersection that is closest to the surface of the earth for automobiles and other nearEarth vehicles. The correct position of the GPS receiver is also the intersection which is closest to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. (The two intersections are symmetrical with respect to the plane containing the three satellites. If

the three satellites are not in the same orbital plane, the plane containing the three satellites will not be a vertical plane passing through the center of the Earth. In this case one of the intersections will be closer to the earth than the other. The near-Earth intersection will be the correct position for the case of a near-Earth vehicle. The intersection which is farthest from Earth may be the correct position for space vehicles.) Correcting a GPS receiver's clock The method of calculating position for the case of no errors has been explained. One of the most significant error sources is the GPS receiver's clock. Because of the very large value of the speed of light, c, the estimated distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites, the pseudo ranges, are very sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock. This suggests that an extremely accurate and expensive clock is required for the GPS receiver to work. On the other hand, manufacturers prefer to build inexpensive GPS receivers for mass markets. The solution for this dilemma is based on the way sphere surfaces intersect in the GPS problem.

3. Working Of GPS

3.1 Triangulating:
Triangulating from satellites: Improbable as it may seem, the whole idea behind GPS is to use satellites in space as reference points for locations here on earth. Thats right, by very, very accurately measuring our distance from three satellites we can triangulateour position anywhere on earth. Forget for a moment how our receiver measures this distance. Well get to that later. First consider how distance measurements from three satellites can pinpoint you in space.

The Big Idea Geometrically: Step One: Suppose we measure our distance from a satellite and find it to be 11,000 miles. Knowing that were 11,000 miles from a particular satellite narrows down all the possible locations we could be in the whole universe to the surface of a sphere that is centered on this satellite and has a radius of 11,000 miles. Step Two: Next, say we measure our distance to a second satellite and find out that its 12,000 miles away. That tells us that were not only on the first sphere but were also on a sphere thats 12,000 miles from the second satellite. Or in other words, were somewhere on the circle where these two spheres intersect. Step Three:

If we then make a measurement from satellite and find that were 13,000 miles from that one, that narrows our position down even further, to the two points where the 13,000 mile sphere cuts through the circle thats the intersection of the first two spheres. So by ranging from three satellites we can narrow our position to just two points in space. To decide which one is our true location we could make a fourth measurement. But usually one of the two points is a ridiculous answer (either too far from Earth or moving at an impossible velocity) and can be rejected without a measurement. A fourth measurement does come in very handy for another reason however, but well tell you about that later. Next well see how the system measures distances to satellites.

3.2 Measuring Distance:

Measuring distance from a satellite We saw in the last section that a position is calculated from distance measurements to at least three satellites.

The Big Idea Mathematically: In a sense, the whole thing boils down to those "velocity times travel time" math problems we did in high school. Remember the old: "If a car goes 60 miles per hour for two hours, how far does it travel?" Velocity (60 mph) x Time (2 hours) = Distance (120 miles) In the case of GPS we're measuring a radio signal so the velocity is going to be the speed of light or roughly 186,000 miles per second. The problem is measuring the travel time.

Timing is tricky

We need precise clocks to measure travel time The travel time for a satellite right overhead is about 0.06 seconds The difference in sync of the receiver time minus the satellite time is equal to the travel time

In Review: 1. Distance to a satellite is determined by measuring how long a radio signal takes to reach us from that satellite. 2. To make the measurement we assume that both the satellite and our receiver are generating the same pseudo-random codes at exactly the same time. 3. By comparing how late the satellite's pseudo-random code appears compared to our receiver's code, we determine how long it took to reach us. 4. Multiply that travel time by the speed of light and you've got distance.

3.3 Getting perfect timing

Getting perfect timing If measuring the travel time of a radio signal is the key to GPS, then our stop watches had better be darn good, because if their timing is off by just a thousandth of a second, at the speed of light, that translates into almost 200 miles of error! On the satellite side, timing is almost perfect because they have incredibly precise atomic clocks on board. But what about our receivers here on the ground? Remember that both the satellite and the receiver need to be able to precisely synchronize their pseudo-random codes to make the system work. If our receivers needed atomic clocks (which cost upwards of $50K to $100K) GPS would be a lame duck technology. Nobody could afford it. Luckily the designers of GPS came up with a brilliant little trick that lets us get by with much less accurate clocks in our receivers. This trick is one of the key elements of GPS and as an added side benefit it means that every GPS receiver is essentially an atomicaccuracy clock.

The secret to perfect timing is to make an extra satellite measurement. That's right, if three perfect measurements can locate a point in 3-dimensional space, then four imperfect measurements can do the same thing.

Getting perfect timing

Extra Measurement Cures Timing Offset If our receiver's clocks were perfect, then all our satellite ranges would intersect at a single point (which is our position). But with imperfect clocks, a fourth measurement, done as a cross-check, will NOT intersect with the first three.

Since any offset from universal time will affect all of our measurements, the receiver looks for a single correction factor that it can subtract from all its timing measurements that would cause them all to intersect at a single point. That correction brings the receiver's clock back into sync with universal time, and bingo! - you've got atomic accuracy time right in the palm of your hand. Once it has that correction it applies to all the rest of its measurements and now we've got precise positioning. One consequence of this principle is that any decent GPS receiver will need to have at least four channels so that it can make the four measurements simultaneously. With the pseudo-random code as a rock solid timing sync pulse, and this extra measurement trick to get us perfectly synced to universal time, we have got everything we need to measure our distance to a satellite in space. But for the triangulation to work we not only need to know distance, we also need to know exactly where the satellites are.

3.4 Satellite Positions

Satellite Positions A high satellite gathers no moss That 11,000 mile altitude is actually a benefit in this case, because something that high is well clear of the atmosphere. And that means it will orbit according to very simple mathematics.

On the ground all GPS receivers have an almanac programmed into their computers that tells them where in the sky each satellite is, moment by moment. The basic orbits are quite exact but just to make things perfect the GPS satellites are constantly monitored by the Department of Defense. They use very precise radar to check each satellite's exact altitude, position and speed. The errors they're checking for are called "ephemeris errors" because they affect the satellite's orbit or "ephemeris." These errors are caused by gravitational pulls from the moon and sun and by the pressure of solar radiation on the satellites. The errors are usually very slight but if you want great accuracy they must be taken into account.

Satellite Positions

Getting the message out Once the DoD has measured a satellite's exact position, they relay that information back up to the satellite itself. The satellite then includes this new corrected position information in the timing signals it's broadcasting. With perfect timing and the satellite's exact position you'd think we'd be ready to make perfect position calculations. But there's trouble afoot. Check out the next section to see what's up.

4. Operating Concepts of GPS 4.1 Satellite Signals

Satellite Signals.The satellites transmit their signals using spread-spectrum techniques that employ two different spreading functions: a 1.023-MHZ coarse/ acquisition (C/A) code on L1 only and a 10.23-MHz precision (P) code on both L1 and L2. The two spreading techniques provide two levels of GPS service: Precise Positioning Service (PPS) and Standard Positioning Service (SPS). SPS uses C/A code to derive position, while

4.2 C/A code Demodulation and decoding

Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the Coarse/Acquisition Gold code.
Since all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, there is a need to separate the signals after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique pseudorandom sequence known as a Gold code, and the signals are decoded, after demodulation, using modulo 2 addition of the Gold codes corresponding to satellites n1 through nk, where k is the number of channels in the GPS receiver and n1 through nk are the pseudorandom numbers associated with the satellites. The results of these modulo 2 additions are the 50 bit/s navigation messages from satellites n1 through nk. The Gold codes used in GPS are a sequence of 1023 bits with a period of one millisecond. These Gold codes are highly mutually orthogonal, so that it is unlikely that one satellite signal will be misinterpreted as another. As well, the Gold codes have good auto-correlation properties. There are 1025 different Gold codes of length 1023 bits, but only 32 are used. These Gold codes are quite often referred to as pseudo random noise since they contain no data and are said to look like random sequences. However, this may be misleading since they are actually deterministic sequences. Position calculation advanced Before providing a more mathematical description of position calculation, the introductory material on this topics is reviewed. To describe the basic concept of how a GPS receiver works, the errors are at first ignored. Using messages received from four satellites, the GPS receiver is able to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of position and the time sent are designated as where the subscript i denotes which satellite and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated time the message was received , the GPS receiver can compute the indicated transit time, . of the message. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled, can be computed as . Knowing the distance from GPS receiver to a satellite and the position of a satellite implies that the GPS receiver is on the surface of a sphere centered at the position of a satellite. Thus we know that the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver will be at an intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. The surfaces of two spheres if they intersect in more than one point intersect in a circle. We are here excluding the unrealistic case for GPS purposes of two coincident spheres. A figure, Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a Circle, is shown below depicting this which hopefully will aid the

reader in visualizing this intersection. Two points at which the surfaces of the spheres intersect are clearly marked on the figure. The distance between these two points is the diameter of the circle of intersection. If you are not convinced of this, consider how a side view of the intersecting spheres would look. This view would look exactly the same as the figure because of the symmetry of the spheres. And in fact a view from any horizontal direction would look exactly the same. This should make it clear to the reader that the surfaces of the two spheres actually do intersect in a circle.

Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle The article, trilateration, shows mathematically how the equation for a circle is determined. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest intersect at two points, although it is conceivable that they could intersect in 0 or 1 point. We are here excluding the unrealistic case for GPS purposes of three colinear (lying on same straight line) sphere centers. Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, is shown below to aid in visualizing this intersection. Again trilateration clearly shows this mathematically. The correct position of the GPS receiver is the one that is closest to the fourth sphere. This paragraph has described the basic concept of GPS while ignoring errors. The next problem is how to process the messages when errors are present.

Surface of a sphere intersecting a circle (i.e., the edge of a disk) at two points Let denote the clock error or bias, the amount by which the receiver's clock is slow. The GPS receiver has four unknowns, the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias . The equation of the sphere surfaces are given by , Another useful form of these equations is in terms of the pseudoranges, which are simply the ranges approximated based on GPS receiver clock's indicated (i.e. uncorrected) time so that . Then the equations becomes: . Two of the most important methods of computing GPS receiver position and clock bias are (1) trilateration followed by one dimensional numerical root finding and (2) multidimensional Newton-Raphson calculations. These two methods along with their advantages are discussed.

The receiver can solve by trilateration followed by one dimensional numerical root finding. This method involves using trilateration to determine the intersection of the surfaces of three spheres. It is clearly shown in trilateration that the surfaces of three spheres intersect in 0, 1, or 2 points. In the usual case of two intersections, the solution which is nearest the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite is chosen. The surface of the earth can also sometimes be used instead, especially in the case of civilian GPS receivers since it is illegal in the United States to track vehicles of more than 60,000 feet (18,000 m) in altitude. The bias, is then computed as a function of the distance from the solution to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite.

To determine what function to use for computing see the chapter on root finding in or the preview. Using an updated received time based on this bias, new spheres are computed and the process is repeated. This repetition is continued until the distance from the valid trilateration solution is sufficiently close to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. One advantage of this method is that it involves one dimensional as opposed to multidimensional numerical root finding.

The receiver can utilize a multidimensional root finding method such as the Newton-Raphson method. Linearize around an approximate solution, say from iteration k, then solve four linear equations derived from the quadratic equations above to obtain . The radii are large and so the sphere surfaces are close to flat. This near flatness may cause the iterative procedure to converge rapidly in the case where is near the correct value and the primary change is in the values of , since in this case the problem is merely to find the intersection of nearly flat surfaces and thus close to a linear problem. However when is changing significantly, this near flatness does not appear to be advantageous in producing rapid convergence, since in this case these near flat surfaces will be moving as the spheres expand and contract. This possible fast convergence is an advantage of this method. Also it has been claimed that this method is the "typical" method used by GPS receivers. A disadvantage of this multidimensional root finding method as compared to single dimensional root findiing is that according to, "There are no good general methods for solving systems of more than one nonlinear equations.".

When more than four satellites are available, a decision must be made on whether to use the four best or more than four taking into considerations such factors as number of channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of precision. Using more than four results in an over-determined system of equations with no unique solution, which must be solved by least-squares or a similar technique. If all visible satellites are used, the results are always at least as good as using the four best, and usually better. Also the errors in results can be estimated through the residuals. With each combination of four or more satellites, a geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) vector can be calculated, based on the relative sky positions of the satellites used. As more satellites are picked up, pseudoranges from more combinations of four satellites can be processed to add more estimates to the location and clock offset. The receiver then determines which combinations to use and how to calculate the estimated position by determining

the weighted average of these positions and clock offsets. After the final location and time are calculated, the location is expressed in a specific coordinate system such as latitude and longitude, using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a local system specific to a country.

Finally, results from other positioning systems such as GLONASS or the upcoming Galileo can be used in the fit, or used to double check the result. (By design, these systems use the same bands, so much of the receiver circuitry can be shared, though the decoding is different.)

4.3 P(Y) code

P(Y)-Code.The P-code consists of a 2.36e+14 bit Non repeating code sequence with a clock rate of 10.23 MHZ. The entire code would take 267 days before a repetition occurs; however, each satellite is assigned a unique 1-week segment of this code that restarts every Saturday/Sunday midnight. The P-code has a number of advantages over C/A code. (1) The P-code rate is 10 times faster; therefore, the wavelength is 1/10th as long, giving the P-code a much higher resolution. (2) The higher rate spreads the signal over a wider frequency range (see figure 25-1). This frequency spreading makes the P-code much more difficult to jam. (3) By encrypting the P-code (creating Y-code), the receiver is not susceptible to spoofing (false GPS signals intended to deceive the receiver). The drawback of P-code is that it is relatively difficult to acquire because of its length and high speed. For this reason, many PPS receivers first acquire C/A code, then switch over to the P(Y)-code. Y-code is an encrypted

5. GPS Signals 5.1 Navigation signals

GPS broadcast signal

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a Navigation Message at 50 bit/s giving the time-of-week, GPS week number and satellite health information (all transmitted in the first part of the message), an ephemeris (transmitted in the second part of the message) and an almanac (later part of the message). The messages are sent in frames, each taking 30 seconds to transmit 1500 bits. Transmission of each 30 second frame begins precisely on the minute and half minute as indicated by the satellite's atomic clock according to Satellite message format. Each frame contains 5 subframes of length 6 seconds and with 300 bits. Each subframe contains 10 words of 30 bits with length 0.6 seconds each. Words 1 and 2 of every subframe have the same type of data. The first word is the telemetry word which indicates the beginning of a subframe and is used by the receiver to synch with the navigation message. The second word is the HOW or handover word and it contains timing information which enables the receiver to identify the subframe and provides the time the next subframe was sent. Words 3 through 10 of subframe 1 contain data describing the satellite clock and its relationship to GPS time. Words 3 through 10 of subframes 2 and 3, contain the ephemeris data, giving the satellite's own precise orbit. The ephemeris is updated every

2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The time needed to acquire the ephemeris is becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because, as the hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals shrinks, but the ephemeris data requires 30 seconds (worst case) before it is received, due to the low data transmission rate. The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Words 3 through 10 of subframes 4 and 5 contain a new part of the almanac. Each frame contains 1/25th of the almanac, so 12.5 minutes are required to receive the entire almanac from a single satellite. The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single-frequency receiver to correct for ionospheric error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems like WAAS or dual-frequency receivers. However, it is often better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single-frequency GPS receiver. All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The receiver can distinguish the signals from different satellites because GPS uses a code division multiple access (CDMA) spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudorandom (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver knows the PRN codes for each satellite and can use this to reconstruct the actual message data. The message data is transmitted at 50 bits per second. Two distinct CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code (a so-called Gold code) at 1.023 million chips per second, and the precise (P) code at 10.23 million chips per second. The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code. The C/A code is public and used by civilian GPS receivers, while the P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code which is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-ofday to the user.

Satellite frequencies

L1 (1575.42 MHz): Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-acquisition (C/A) code and encrypted precision P(Y) code, plus the new L1C on future Block III satellites. L2 (1227.60 MHz): P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code on the Block IIR-M and newer satellites. L3 (1381.05 MHz): Used by the Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System Payload (NDS) to signal detection of nuclear detonations and other high-energy infrared events. Used to enforce nuclear test ban treaties. L4 (1379.913 MHz): Being studied for additional ionospheric correction. L5 (1176.45 MHz): Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal (see GPS modernization). This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that would provide this signal is set to be launched in 2009.

5.2 Signal Acquisition

Signal Acquisition.The GPS satellites use Bi-Phase Shift Keyed (BPSK) modulation to transmit the C/A and P(Y)-codes. The BPSK technique involves reversal of the carrier phase whenever the C/A or P(Y)-code transitions from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0. To the casual observer, the very long sequence of ones and zeros that make up the C/A and P-codes appears random and blends into the background noise. For this reason, the codes are known as pseudo-random noise (PRN). In actuality, the C/A and P-codes generated are precisely predictable to the start time of the code sequence and can be duplicated by the GPS receiver. The amount the receiver must offset its code generator to match the incoming code from the satellite is directly proportional to the range between the GPS receiver antenna and the satellite. By the time the spread-spectrum signal arrives at the GPS receiver, the signal power is well below the thermal noise level. To recover the signal, the receiver uses a correlation method to compare the incoming signals with its own generated C/A or P(Y) codes. The receiver shifts its generated code until the two codes are correlated.

5.3 Satellite Ranging

Satellite Ranging.The receiver continuously determines its geographic position by measuring the ranges (the distance between a satellite with known coordinates in space and the receivers antenna) of several satellites and computes the geometric intersection of these ranges. To determine a range, the receiver measures the time required for the GPS signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver antenna. The resulting time shift is multiplied by the speed of light, arriving at the range measurement.

6. Accuracy of GPS
There are 4 basic levels of accuracy-or types of solutions-you can obtain with your real time GPS mining system. Autonomous Accuracy 15-100 meters Differential GPS (DGPS) Real Time Kinematics Float (RTK Float) Real Time Kinematics Fixed (RTK Fixed) Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy 0.5-5 meters 20 cm-1 meter 1 cm- 5 meter

GPS Satellites broadcast on three different frequencies, and each frequency (or carrier wave) has some information or codes on it. You can think of it as three different radio stations broadcasting several different programs .The table below lists the signals and the contents. L1 career 19cm wavelength 1575.42 M Hz C/A Code Navigation L2 career 24cm wavelength 1227.6 M Hz P Code Navigation Message L3 career Data not available

P Code: Reserved for direct use only by the military C/A Code: Used for rougher positioning For Single frequency use only L1 career is used For Double frequency, L1/L2/L3 career is used The navigation message (usually referred to as the ephemeris) tells us where the satellites are located, in a special coordinate system called WGS-84.If you know where the satellites are at any given time , then you can compute your location here on Earth.

What can a GPS provide?

Autonomous Positions Uses. C/A Code Requires.. Only one receiver Data from at least four satellites Provides .. An accuracy range of about 15-100 meters This solution is designed for people who just need an approximate location on earth, such as a boat at sea or a hiker in the mountains. Real-Time Differential GPS (DGPS) Positions Uses.. C/A Code only Requires... Two receivers A radio link between the two receivers Reference receiver at a known location broadcasts RTCM (Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services) corrections. Rover receiver applies corrections for improved GPS positions. Data from at least four satellites the same four at both the references and rover (common satellites) Provides An accuracy range of about 0.5-5 meters depending upon the quality of the receiver and the antenna used. This solution gives much better results because here we have known positions at a reference receiver however it must have a radio link between the reference receiver and the roving (moving) receiver.

7. Sources of Errors in GPS 7.1 Selective Availability

The most relevant factor for the inaccuracy of the GPS system is no longer an issue. On May 2, 2000 5:05 am (MEZ) the so-called selective availability (SA) was turned off. Selective availability is an artificial falsification of the time in the L1 signal transmitted by the satellite. For civil GPS receivers that leads to a less accurate position determination (fluctuation of about 50 m during a few minutes). Additionally the ephemeris data are transmitted with lower accuracy, meaning that the transmitted satellite positions do not comply with the actual positions. In this way an inaccuracy of the position of 50 150 m can be achieved for several hours. While in times of selective availability the position determination with civil receivers had an accuracy of approximately 10 m, nowadays 20 m or even less is usual. Especially the determination of heights has improved considerably from the deactivation of SA (having been more or less useless before). The reasons for SA were safety concerns. For example terrorists should not be provided with the possibility of locating important buildings with homemade remote control weapons. Meanwhile SA is permanently deactivated due to the broad distribution and world wide use of the GPS system. The following two graphs show the improvement of position determination after deactivation of SA. The edge length of the diagrams is 200 m, the data were collected on May 1, 2000 and May 3, 2000 over a period of 24 h each. While with SA 95 % of all points are located within a radius of 45 m, without SA 95 % of all points are within a radius of 6.3 m.

7.2 Satellite geometry

Another factor influencing the accuracy of the position determination is the "satellite geometry". Simplified, satellite geometry describes the position of the satellites to each other from the view of the receiver. If a receiver sees 4 satellites and all are arranged for example in the north-west, this leads to a bad geometry. In the worst case, no position determination is possible at all, when all distance determinations point to the same direction. Even if a position is determined, the error of the positions may be up to 100 150 m. If, on the other hand, the 4 satellites are well distributed over the whole firmament the determined position will be much more accurate. Lets assume the satellites are positioned in the north, east, south and west in 90 steps. Distances can then be measured in four different directions, reflecting a good satellite geometry. The following graph shows this for the two-dimensional case.

Good geometrical alignment of two satellites If the two satellites are in an advantageous position, from the view of the receiver they can be seen in an angle of approximately 90 to each other. The signal runtime can not be determined absolutely precise as explained earlier. The possible positions are therefore marked by the grey circles. The point of intersection A of the two circles is a rather small, more or less quadratic field (blue), the determined position will be rather accurate.

Bad geometrical alignment of two satellites

If the satellites are more or less positioned in one line from the view of the receiver, the plane of intersection of possible positions is considerably larger and elongated- The determination of the position is less accurate. Most GPS receivers do not only indicate the number of received satellites, but also their position on the firmament. This enables the user to judge, if a relevant satellite is obscured by an obstacle and if changing the position for a couple of meters might improve the accuracy. Many instruments provide a statement of the accuracy of the measured values, mostly based on a combination of different factors (which manufacturer do not willingly reveal).

7.3 Satellite Orbits

Although the satellites are positioned in very precise orbits, slight shifts of the orbits are possible due to gravitation forces. Sun and moon have a weak influence on the orbits. The orbit data are controlled and corrected regularly and are sent to the receivers in the package of ephemeris data. Therefore the influence on the correctness of the position determination is rather low, the resulting error being not more than 2 m.

7.4 Multi path effect

Interference caused by reflection of the signals

The multi path effect is caused by reflection of satellite signals (radio waves) on objects. It was the same effect that caused ghost images on television when antennae on the roof were still more common instead of todays satellite dishes. For GPS signals this effect mainly appears in the neighborhood of large buildings or other elevations. The reflected signal takes more time to reach the receiver than the direct signal. The resulting error typically lies in the range of a few meters.

7.5 Atmospheric effects

Influenced propagation of radio waves through the earth's atmosphere

Another source of inaccuracy is the reduced speed of propagation in the troposphere and ionosphere. While radio signals travel with the velocity of light in the outer space, their propagation in the ionosphere and troposphere is slower. In the ionosphere in a height of 80 400 km a large number of electrons and positive charged ions are formed by the ionizing force of the sun. The electrons and ions are concentrated in four conductive layers in the ionosphere (D-, E-, F1-, and F2-layer). These layers refract the electromagnetic waves from the satellites, resulting in an elongated runtime of the signals. These errors are mostly corrected by the receiver by calculations. The typical variations of the velocity while passing the ionosphere for low and high frequencies are well known for standard conditions. Theses variations are taken into account for all calculations of positions. However civil receivers are not capable of correcting unforeseen runtime changes, for example by strong solar winds.

7.6 Clock inaccuracies and rounding errors

Despite the synchronization of the receiver clock with the satellite time during the position determination, the remaining inaccuracy of the time still leads to an error of

about 2 m in the position determination. Rounding and calculation errors of the receiver sum up approximately to 1 m.

7.7 Relativistic effects

In the normal life we are quite unaware of the omnipresence of the theory of relativity. However it has an influence on many processes, among them is the proper functioning of the GPS system. This influence will be explained shortly in the following. As we already learned, the time is a relevant factor in GPS navigation and must be accurate to 20 - 30 nanoseconds to ensure the necessary accuracy. Therefore the fast movement of the satellites themselves (nearly 12000 km/h) must be considered. Whoever already dealt with the theory of relativity knows that time runs slower during very fast movements. For satellites moving with a speed of 3874 m/s, clocks run slower when viewed from earth. This relativistic time dilation leads to an inaccuracy of time of approximately 7,2 microseconds per day (1 microsecond = 10-6 seconds). The theory of relativity also says that time moves the slower the stronger the field of gravitation is. For an observer on the earth surface the clock on board of a satellite is running faster (as the satellite in 20000 km height is exposed to a much weaker field of gravitation than the observer). And this second effect is six times stronger than the time dilation explained above. Altogether, the clocks of the satellites seem to run a little faster. The shift of time to the observer on earth would be about 38 milliseconds per day and would make up for an total error of approximately 10 km per day. In order that those error do not have to be corrected constantly, the clocks of the satellites were set to 10.229999995453 Mhz instead of 10.23 Mhz but they are operated as if they had 10.23 MHz. By this trick the relativistic effects The errors of the GPS system are summarized in the following table. The individual values are no constant values, but are subject to variances. All numbers are approximative values. Ionospheric effects 5 meters

Shifts in the satellite orbits Clock errors of the satellites' clocks Multipath effect Tropospheric effects Calculation- und rounding errors

2.5 meter 2 meter 1 meter 0.5 meter 1 meter

Altogether this sums up to an error of 15 meters. With the SA still activated, the error was in the range of 100 Meter. Corrections by systems like WAAS and EGNOS, which mainly reduce ionospheric effects, but also improve orbits and clock errors, the overall error is reduced to approximately 3 - 5 meters.

8. Differential GPS

Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to Global Positioning System that uses a network of fixed, ground-based reference stations to broadcast the difference between the positions indicated by the satellite systems and the known fixed positions. These stations broadcast the difference between the measured satellite pseudo ranges and actual (internally computed) pseudo ranges, and receiver stations may correct their pseudo ranges by the same amount. The correction signal is typically broadcast over UHF radio modem.

8.1 Why Do We Need Differential GPS

Differential GPS or "DGPS" can yield measurements good to a couple of meters in moving applications and even better in stationary situations. That improved accuracy has a profound effect on the importance of GPS as a resource. With it, GPS becomes more than just a system for navigating boats and planes around the world. It becomes a universal measurement system capable of positioning things on a very precise scale.

8.2 How Differential GPS Works

Differential GPS involves the cooperation of two receivers, one that's stationary and another that's roving around making position measurements. The stationary receiver is the key. It ties all the satellite measurements into a solid local reference. Here's how it works: The problem Remember that GPS receivers use timing signals from at least four satellites to establish a position. Each of those timing signals is going to have some error or delay depending on what sort of perils have befallen it on its trip down to us. Since each of the timing signals that go into a position calculation has some error, that calculation is going to be a compounding of those errors.

An extenuating circumstance Luckily the sheer scale of the GPS system comes to our rescue. The satellites are so far out in space that the little distances we travel here on earth are insignificant. So if two receivers are fairly close to each other, say within a few hundred kilometers, the signals that reach both of them will have traveled through virtually the same slice of atmosphere, and so will have virtually the same errors.

That's the idea behind differential GPS: We have one receiver measure the timing errors and then provide correction information to the other receivers that are roving around. That way virtually all errors can be eliminated from the system, even the pesky Selective Availability error that the DoD puts in on purpose.

The idea is simple. Put the reference receiver on a point that's been very accurately surveyed and keep it there. This reference station receives the same GPS signals as the roving receiver but instead of working like a normal GPS receiver it attacks the equations backwards. Instead of using timing signals to calculate its position, it uses its known position to calculate timing. It figures out what the travel time of the GPS signals should be, and compares it with what they actually are. The difference is an "error correction" factor. The receiver then transmits this error information to the roving receiver so it can use it to correct its measurements.

9. APPLICATIONS

The Global Positioning System, while originally a military project, is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant applications for both the military and the civilian industry.

(A) MILITARY
The role of the military in any country can be very varied and every system for it must meet these requirements fully. In general, there are two major tasks of the military vis Barrack and the Battlefield. Barrack encompasses all the peacetime activities in which the military personnel are involved. This may include training, disaster relief, peacekeeping and management of large bases / installations. Battlefield includes all wartime activities. The military applications of GPS revolve around these activities. Some of these can be enumerated as,

Navigation Tracking Bomb and Missile guidance Rescue Facility Management Map updation

These are only some of the applications as more and more uses may be derived from GPS. Navigation For a soldier operating under cover of darkness in enemy territory the biggest challenge is navigation due to unfamiliar territory and lack of easily identifiable landmarks on ground. Soldiers have been using night skies for ages to find out direction but their location on ground cannot be determined. The necessity of knowing their own position by troops during war was very clearly highlighted during the Kargil conflict (1999). This can be judged from the fact that during the Kargil conflict, Indian patrols operating in rugged terrain along the line of control, initially strayed into enemy held areas with disastrous consequences but later on the availability of handheld GPS receivers proved

to be invaluable to them. In fact, these GPS receivers are fast replacing the conventional compasses in a soldiers rug sack. Special forces and crack teams also use these to reach and destroy vital enemy installations. Such teams can draw air and artillery fire accurately by providing the accurate positional data. Further, gun positions can be occupied quickly using GPS, as in modern warfare, artillery batteries must move often to keep pace with assault troops and to avoid being hit by counter fire. Convoy movements can also be tracked and planned effectively using GPS devices. Tracking In a military scenario, potential targets need to be constantly tracked before they are declared hostile and engaged by various weapon systems. This tracking data is fed as input to modern weapon systems such as missiles and smart bombs etc. Just to site an example, the US Army has developed a GPS Truth Data Acquisition, Recording, and Display System (TDARDS). It is a compact, lightweight, low-cost, and easily transportable or mobile GPS-based tracking system that uses up-to-date GPS data, radio data link, and computer technology to provide highly accurate, real-time time-space position information (TSPI) on up to ten test objects, such as ground vehicles, helicopters, and fixed-wing aircraft. Bomb and Missile guidance Modern day weapon systems are designed to use GPS data as input for targeting and guidance. Cruise missiles commonly used by US to accurately hit targets from large standoff distances use multichannel GPS receivers to accurately determine their location constantly while in flight. The Multiple Launched Rocket System (MLRS) vehicle uses GPS based inertial guidance to position itself and aim the launch box at the target in a very short time This reduces the chances of detection and counter bombardment. The Exploitation of DGPS for Guidance Enhancement (EDGE) program of the US army has developed a 2000 lb glide bomb, which uses a GPS seeker rather than a Laser for guidance. This bomb could accurately hit its target 11 miles from its drop point guided by four DGPS base stations about 1000 nautical miles away Rescue Rescue and emergency response is another area where GPS can prove invaluable to the military. Determining the location of a casualty during operations, emergency response teams can use the GPS to reduce response time. For example, the US Air Force is already taking advantage of GPS based technology and is developing a Combat Survivor Evader Locator (CSEL) system. The new system integrates the GPS receiver with a communications radio so that search and rescue teams can locate downed aircrew members faster and more accurately than before

Map Updation To carry out planning at various military headquarter levels, the defence forces need accurate and updated maps at various scales

Image showing use of GPS receivers by US soldiers during Gulf War depending upon the level of the commander for planning operations, administrative planning and training. The availability of GPS shall augment the collection of precise data necessary for quick and accurate map updation.

Facility Management In almost all countries of the world, the military manages and operates large bases which cover extensive areas. To manage these facilities effectively, it is essential to prepare an accurate base map. Here GPS/DGPS can be of immense help, as existing maps are not updated regularly. GPS co-opted with Geographic Information System (GIS) can effectively tackle this task.

Conclusions With war clouds looming large over the west Asian region, the world is likely to witness the state of the art weaponry being used by the US led forces. Most of these, either directly or indirectly shall be using GPS to accurately target and achieve the desired results. This paper has demonstrated the capabilities of GPS receivers for various kinds of military activities both during war and peace. Depending upon the nature of activity (i.e., navigation or precise target location), a particular kind of GPS may be used. It may thus be summarized that the GPS based weapon systems are here to stay and will form the backbone for the future development of better, more accurate and lethal munitions.

(B) CIVILIAN 9.1 NAVIGATION

GPS Navigation everywhere If Navigation stands for "determining of position and direction on or near the surface of the Earth", than GPS Navigation stands for the same with the help of the Global Positioning System (GPS). A GPS chip is a small radio-receiver that can capture the signals of several GPS satellites simultaneously. This way it can compute its Position, Velocity and the exact Time. This information is given out in encoded form.

How to use this information for navigation?

In the first (non-mapping) GPS receivers this information was made visible on a small LCD screen. A small computer program in the receiver translated the information about subsequent positions into dots on the screen. This way you can see where you came from and were you actual are, as well as the track that you followed to come to your actual position. As long as you move, the system can also calculate the direction in which you move, by comparing subsequent positions. If you project your direction over a longer distance, you can even see where you are heading. This seems maybe rather abstract, but with some smart extra possibilities of the internal program and only some external buttons for the user, you can indicate waypoints or save waypoints at specific points along your track, which facilitates navigation. You can also plan ahead and create a Route, along which you want to do a future travel. It would be of great help if you were somewhat familiar with the different GPS Terms. In normal circumstances you will use these techniques with a (topographic) map of the region where you want to travel (drive, hike, walk), but in emergency situations you can very well use it to your advantage, even if you do not have a map. At least it will prevent you from walking around in circles. The more you exercised with your particular GPS receiver, the more you will be able to get out of it.

9.2 LOCATION
PURPOSE & OBJECTIVES The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used to find your location quickly and accurately anywhere in the world. In this activity, you will learn how to use a GPS receiver to locate your exact position on Earth (latitude and longitude). You will then locate a mystery position (somewhere in the vicinity of your school) based on information collected from the GPS system and a local map. In the process, you will discover how GPS works to determine your exact position.

PROCEDURE Part I. Using a GPS Receiver to Find Your Location Proceed to an outdoor location with a clear view of the sky from horizon to horizon. You should stand well away from the school building, trees, etc., so that you have an unobstructed view of the sky. Hold the receiver at arm's length from your body so the built-in antenna (the flat area above the display) is parallel to the ground. Power-on the GPS receiver by pressing the red key. After the Welcome Page, by default the receiver displays the Satellite Status Page (sky view) and begins searching for satellite signals. GPS receivers get their information from a system of 24 orbiting satellites located approximately 18,300 kilometers (11,000 miles) above the Earth's surface. To provide accurate position information, the receiver must be able to "see" three or four satellites. As satellites are acquired, you will see bars appear on the graph at the bottom of the display; these bars indicate the strength of the satellite signal. Once enough satellites have been acquired, the Satellite Status Page will disappear automatically and be replaced with the Position Page (graphic compass).

Your position (latitude and longitude) should be shown on the Position Page. Record your current position in the following data table:

9.3 TRACKING
A GPS tracking unit is a device that uses the Global Positioning System to determine the precise location of a vehicle, person, or other asset to which it is attached and to record the position of the asset at regular intervals. The recorded location data can be

stored within the tracking unit, or it may be transmitted to a central location data base, or internet-connected computer, using a cellular (GPRS), radio, or satellite modem embedded in the unit. This allows the asset's location to be displayed against a map backdrop either in real-time or when analysing the track later, using customized software. Such systems are not new; amateur radio operators have been operating their free GPS-based nationwide realtime Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS) since 1982. Types of GPS trackers. Usually, a GPS tracker will fall into one of these three categories: 1.Data loggers A GPS logger simply logs the position of the device at regular intervals in its internal memory. Modern GPS loggers have either a memory card slot, or internal flash memory and a USB port. Some act as a USB flash drive. This allows downloading of the data for further analysis in a computer. These kind of devices are most suited for use by sport enthusiasts: They carry it while practising an outdoors sport, e.g. jogging or backpacking. When they return home, they download the data to a computer, to calculate the length and duration of the trip, or to overimpose their paths over a map with the aid of GIS software. GPS devices are also integral tools in geocaching. In the sport of gliding, competitors are sent to fly over closed circuit tasks of hundreds of kilometres. GPS loggers are used to prove that the competitors completed the task and stayed away from controlled airspace. The data stored over many hours in the loggers is downloaded after the flight is completed and is analysed by computing the start and finish times so determining the fastest competitors. Most digital cameras save the time a photo was taken. Provided the camera clock was reasonably accurate, this time can be correlated with GPS log data, to provide an accurate location. This can be added to the picture, and is called geotagging. In some Private Investigation cases, these data loggers are used to keep track of the vehicle or the fleet vehicle. The reason for using this device is so that a PI will not have to follow the target so closely and always has a backup source of data.

2.Data pushers This is the kind of devices used by the security industry, which pushes (i.e. "sends") the position of the device, at regular intervals, to a determined server, that can instantly analyze the data. These devices started to become popular and cheaper at the same time as mobile phones. The falling prices of the SMS services, and smaller sizes of phone allowed to integrate the technologies at a fair price. A GPS receiver and a mobile phone sit side-by-side in the same box, powered by the same battery. At regular intervals, the phone sends a text message via SMS, containing the data from the GPS receiver. Some companies provide data "push" technology, enabling sophisticated GPS tracking in business environments, specifically organizations that employ a mobile workforce, such as a commercial fleet. Typical GPS tracking systems used in commercial fleets are comprised of two core parts; location hardware (or tracking device) and tracking software, this combination is often referred to as a vehicle tracking system. The tracking device is most often hardwire installed in the vehicle; connected to the ignition switch, battery and antennae. The typical tracking hardware for a fleet management solution uses GPS to pinpoint its location and then updates are transmitted at a regular timed interval or after an event trigger, e.g. ignition on / off. These location updates are commonly transmitted, coverage permitting, in Europe and increasingly in North America using GPRS. The location data are made available for viewing more often than not with many of the solutions sold today, via a website, accessed over the internet, where fleet activity can be viewed live or historically using digital maps and reports. GPS tracking systems used in commercial fleets are often configured to transmit location and telemetry input data at a set update rate or when an event ( door open/close, auxilliary equipment on/off) triggers the unit to transmit data. Live GPS Tracking used in commercial fleets, generally refers to systems which update regularly at 1 minute, 2 minute or 5 minute intervals, whilst the ignition status is on. Some tracking systems combine timed updates with heading change triggered updates. The applications of these kind of trackers include:

Fleet control. For example, a delivery or taxi company may put such a tracker in every of its vehicles, thus allowing the staff to know if a vehicle is on time or late, or is doing its assigned route. The same applies for armored trucks transporting valuable goods, as it allows to pinpoint the exact site of a possible robbery. Stolen vehicle searching. Owners of expensive cars can put a tracker in it, and "activate" them in case of theft. "Activate" means that a command is issued to the tracker, via SMS or otherwise, and it will start acting as a fleet control device, allowing the user to know where the vehicle is. Animal control. When put on a wildlife animal (e.g. in a collar), it allows scientists to study its activities and migration patterns. Vaginal implant transmitters are used to mark the location where pregnant females give birth. Animal tracking collars may also be put on domestic animals, to locate them in case they get lost. Race control. In some sports, such as gliding, participants are required to have a tracker with them. This allows, among other applications, for race officials to know if the participants are cheating, taking unexpected shortcuts or how far apart they are. This use has been featured in the movie "Rat Race", where some millionaires see the position of the racers in a wall map. Espionage/surveillance. When put on a person, or on his personal vehicle, it allows the person monitoring the tracking to know his/her habits. This application is used by private investigators. These devices are also used by some parents to track their children.The supporters claim that if cleverly used, this actually allows children more independence. Internet Fun. Some Web 2.0 pioneers have created their own personal web pages that show their position constantly, and in real-time, on a map within their website. These usually use data push from a GPS enabled cell phone. 3.Data pullers Contrary to a data pusher, that sends the position of the device at regular intervals (push technology), these devices are always-on and can be queried as often as required (pull technology). This technology is not in widespread use, but an example of this kind of device is a computer connected to the Internet and running gpsd. These can often be used in the case where the location of the tracker will only need to be known occasionally e.g. placed in property that may be stolen. Data Pullers are coming into more common usage in the form of devices containing a GPS receiver and a cell phone which, when sent a special SMS message reply to the message with their location.

9.4 MAPPING
Trip and Way Point Manager Software This convenient computer software allows a person to transfer waypoints, routes and tracks between a Garmin device and a PC. It Can be Used it to plan trips or to organize and save waypoints, routes and tracks for future use. For reference, Trip & Waypoint Manager provides general worldwide maps that include interstates, motorways, political boundaries, principal cities and towns, oceans and other general reference details to place given GPS data in context. Trip & Waypoint Manager is designed especially for Garmin devices that do not have built-in maps. Overview Includes MapSource, computer software that helps in planning trips on the computer and transfer waypoints, routes and tracks between computer and Garmin device. Provides basic worldwide maps to help understand GPS data in context, including major interstates, boundaries, oceans, principal cities and towns, and other general reference details. Offers an easy and convenient way to archive GPS data for future use. Contains no detailed maps. Therefore cannot be used to load maps onto Garmin device. The application performed on the software was that a set of GPS coordinates were transferred from the Garmin GPS receiver to the Trip and Way Point manager and exact

route from the starting station to the Destination was plotted on the World map. The coordinates of the way points taken on the GPS receiver while travelling were transferred onto the map. Thus a route between the starting station and Destination station was established on the map. Therefore any user can now simply print out the map and follow the route to reach any of the waypoints marked on the map. Steps involved in this Process:1) GPS coordinates transferred from GARMIN GPS receiver to a computer. 2) Coordinates of Important places along the route marked as waypoints 3) Data is then saved for future reference. 4) A printout of the map with marked waypoints can then be used for navigation to destination.

Picture Depicting various routes on the Trip and way point manager at a vertical Distance of 300 km from the satellite.

Picture Depicting Route from Delhi to Flag Hoisting summit near Indo-China Border at a vertical distance of 100km from satellite

Closer Picture depicting route between pooh and flag hoist point at a vertical distance of 2 km from the satellite.

9.5 TIMING

Accurate time is transmitted around the world using satellite navigation technology, with the Global Positioning System (GPS) as the foremost example. This is a system of 24 satellites orbiting the Earth, each with several synchronized atomic clocks on board. Effectively, it is a highly accurate time-transfer system available to anyone with the technology to use it. At any moment on any point on Earth at least 4 satellites can be seen. A signal from one satellite is enough to determine the time accurately, however, signals from four satellites are necessary to calculate time and positional information for navigation. The accuracy of time signals from GPS is limited to 340 nanoseconds (where 1 nanosecond = 0.000 000 001 seconds) by a deliberate distortion of the satellite signal (for military security) called Selective Availability. The clocks that make up the world time system are compared by using GPS satellites as 'transfer' standards. Laboratories in the same region measure the time difference between themselves and individual GPS satellites at the same instant. By taking account of the signal delays, these measurements can be used to calculate the time difference between laboratories with an accuracy of approximately 3 nanoseconds. Current research is directed at reducing the time transfer errors even further, with the promise of improvements by factors of 100 to 1000, by future atomic clocks based on the 'cesium fountain' and possibly even 'ion trapping' techniques.

9.6 CADASTRAL SURVEYING,GIS

Cadastral surveys are used to document the boundaries of land ownership, by the production of documents, diagrams, sketches, plans (plats in USA), charts, and maps. They were originally used to ensure reliable facts for land valuation and taxation. An example from early England is the Domesday Book. Napoleon established a

comprehensive cadastral system for France which is regarded as the fore-runner of most modern versions. Cadastral survey information is often a base element in Geographic/Land Information systems used to assess and manage land and built infrastructure. Such systems are also employed on a variety of other tasks, for example, to track long-term changes over time for geological or ecological studies, where land tenure is a significant part of the scenario. A cadastral map is a map showing the boundaries and ownership of land parcels. Some cadastral maps show additional details, such as survey district names, unique identifying numbers for parcels, certificate of title numbers, positions of existing structures, section and/or lot numbers and their respective areas, adjoining and adjacent street names, selected boundary dimensions and references to prior maps. Scott, in Seeing Like a State has argued that all maps, but particularly cadastral maps, are designed to make local situations tangible to an outsider, and in doing so enabling states to collect data on its subjects. He sees the origins of this in Early Modern Europe, where taxation became more complex. Cadastral maps, he argues, are always a great simplification, but they in themselves help change reality

9.7 REMOTE SENSING

ERDAS Imagine Software
ERDAS Imagine is a powerful software package that is arguably the most commonly used (although there are many other good packages) by remote sensing scientists for manipulating and analyzing data. It is a software program that helps the user view and manipulates satellite images across a broad landscape, as opposed to using aerial photograph interpretation. By manipulating the color bands, one can analyze vegetation patterns, fire management, land cover, land use, forest harvesting, urban sprawl, land pattern changes over time, and environmental disturbances such as oil spills. This paper provides an introduction to some of the applications of ERDAS. ERDAS Imagine Software can also be used for Geo-Referencing. This can be done by specifying a minimum of three coordinates on the map. With the help of these coordinates, coordinates of various other points on the map are calculated by ERDAS Imagine Software.The application performed by us was terrain mapping. In this application satellite image and data were utilised to differentiate various terrains. That is various terrains were given colour coding(The colour intensity is maximum for low

lands and the colour intensity goes on decreasing as we move gradually towards higher lands.)

Satellite Image (unprocessed)

Satellite Image (after processing)

Table Showing 25 colours out of possible 255 color and the height represented by them.

9.8 GEODESY
Geodesy is primarily concerned with positioning within the temporally varying gravity field. Somewhat obsolete nowadays, geodesy in the German speaking world is divided into "Higher Geodesy" , which is concerned with measuring the Earth on the global scale, and "Practical Geodesy" or "Engineering Geodesy" ,which is concerned with measuring specific parts or regions of the Earth, and which includes surveying. The shape of the Earth is to a large extent the result of its rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geological processes such as the collision of plates and of vulcanism, resisted by the Earth's gravity field. This applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface (dynamic sea surface topography) and the Earth's atmosphere. For this reason, the study of the Earth's gravity field is called physical geodesy by some.

9.9 Geo-referencing
Geo reference is the procedure of transferring GPS coordinates onto a map (minimum four) so that the map acts as a source of GPS coordinates for various points on the map, i.e. when four coordinates are transferred onto a reference map (usually the four edges of the map) and if the map is built according to some scale then every point on the map can be shown in terms of GPS coordinates. Geo referencing is a very useful process as the cost of obtaining the GPS coordinates of the reference points is very low as compared to its uses in various applications .In fact the cost to use ratio turns out to be 30:70.that is once GPS coordinates of reference points are obtained then they can not only be used in present applications but can also be saved for future applications. The only drawback being in the case of a natural calamity like earthquake, tsunami etc. that GPS coordinates become redundant therefore in case of natural calamity GPS coordinates have to be re-obtained. For keeping the accuracy of GPS coordinates, georeferencing must be done from time to time. Survey Maps These are ideal source of maps as they are not only built according to some scale but since they are published by archeological survey of India therefore they are very accurate. The scale used in these maps are :1) 1:25,000 2) 1:50,000 3) 1:1,000,000(one million) 4) 1:2,000,000(two million)

Reference
Magazines
GIS Development Coordinate

Websites
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_signals http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/travel/gps.htm www.gps.gov www.garmin.com/aboutGPS/ www.garmin.com/products/010-10215-04/ www.erdas.com/tabid/84/currentid/1050/default.aspx http://myweb.facstaff.wwu.edu/~medlerm/classes/08_09/451/04/Web %20Applications/erdasintro.htm http://www.gisdevelopment.net/index.htm