Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2010) 2:157173 DOI 10.

1007/s12520-010-0037-9

ORIGINAL PAPER

Swiss Bell Beaker population dynamics: eastern or southern influences?

Jocelyne Desideri & Marie Besse

Received: 7 October 2009 / Accepted: 21 May 2010 / Published online: 11 June 2010 # Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract The Bell Beaker complex is defined, above all, by a ceramic style widespread across Europe during the 3rd millennium BC. Its particularly large geographic distribution has provoked different interpretations: a unique population invading Europe, the long-distance exchange of prestige goods, and the absence of a real Bell Beaker population with only the diffusion of its cultural components. For Switzerland, the Bell Beaker period would have developed following influences varying in significance from both the Mediterranean region and Central Europe. Bioanthropology makes it possible to test the first of these hypotheses, which proposes the diffusion of a culture by population displacement. Here, the choice was made to analyze dental nonmetrics. Our previous research on dental nonmetrics supports the idea, for Switzerland, of a certain harmony in Middle Neolithic populations, and the mobility or a moderate population contribution beginning in the Final Neolithic and continuing more intensely during the Bell Beaker period. The aim here is to identify the provenance of the population contribution at the end of the western Swiss Neolithic, and more specifically during the Bell Beaker period. To do so, we have compared the dental morphology of Swiss pre-Bell Beaker, Bell Beaker, and post-Bell Beaker populations with that of contemporaneous populations found not only in the eastern sphere (Czech Republic and Hungary), but also in the southern sphere (southern France and northern Spain). We are now able to demonstrate that the axis for external population influenJ. Desideri (*) : M. Besse Laboratory of Prehistoric Archaeology and Peopling History, Department of Anthropology and Ecology, University of Geneva, Rue Gustave-Revilliod 12, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland e-mail: jocelyne.desideri@unige.ch

ces at the end of the western Swiss Neolithic is clearly southern. Keywords Bell Beaker culture . Neolithic . Western Switzerland . Peopling history . Dental nonmetrics

Introduction The Bell Beaker culture initially referred to a pottery style largely widespread in Europe and North Africa during the 3rd millennium BC, a period that corresponds to the end of the Neolithic. It was first defined at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, in Spain, to describe S-profiled vases in the form of an inverted bell. The Bell Beaker culture covers a vast territory from the British Isles to the North African coast for its northsouth extent, and from Portugal to Hungary for its eastwest extent. The Bell Beaker complex was established on a Europe-wide scale, with quite different preceding local substrates as can be seen through the regions discussed in this paper. In northern Spain for example, the Bell Beaker developed during the recent phase of the Chalcolithic (first half of the 3rd millennium BC) coexisting with it until the emergence of the Early Bronze Age (Rojo Guerra et al. 2005). In southern France, the end of the Neolithic is marked by the emergence of a multitude of distinct and geographically limited cultural groups attributed to the Final Neolithic or the Chalcolithic. The Bell Beaker was established irregularly across the region considered and, in some cases, coexisted with local cultures. It developed during the first half of the 3rd millennium BC (Guilaine 1998). The Swiss Bell Beaker appeared during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC succeeding the Final Neolithic and succeeded by the Early Bronze Age (Besse

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2006). The Czech Republic Bell Beaker developed during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, between the Corded Ware (Final Neolithic) and the Unetice (Early Bronze Age) cultures (Turek and Peska 2001). And finally, the Hungarian Bell Beaker occupation is integrated within the middle phase of the Early Bronze Age during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC (Endrdi 1998). Data are difficult to compare, because of the differences observed in the east and the west. The Bell Beaker complex is characterized by material including decorated pottery, the common denominator of this culture, with common ware ceramics varying by region and diverse artifacts including wristguards, tanged daggers, Palmela points and buttons with V perforation. While these artifacts unite the Bell Beaker complex, the incontestable diversity of its funerary and domestic structures blurs the overall uniformity. From the individual grave, re-use, collective tombs and incineration, the funeral practices of the Bell Beaker reveal its complexity (Besse and Desideri 2004). Similarly, variability in domestic structures, whether with respect to construction (on posts or dry-stone), form (circular, oval, or rectangular), or location (near or far from their substrate), is clear (Besse and Desideri 2005). The Bell Beaker complex developed during the 3rd millennium BC, between 2900 and 1800 BC, and it is possible to demonstrate a southwestnortheast gradient for its appearance (Guilaine 1998; Mller and Van Willigen 2001; Bailly and Salanova 1999). Initial explanations concerning the emergence of the Bell Beaker were primarily based on the pan-European character of certain types of artifacts and varied between population movements, exchange of goods and exchange of ideas (e.g., Childe 1925; Del Castillo 1928; Sangmeister 1963; Lanting and Van der Waals 1976; Clarke 1976; Gallay 1997-1998). Today, research focuses on divergences, analyzing large territories using specific instruments. The least exceptional elements of the material culture, such as common ware ceramics (Lemercier 2002, 2004; Besse 2003, 2004) and lithics (Bailly 2002; Furestier 2007), express and demonstrate a clear dichotomy in the Bell Beaker complex that contrasts the eastern and western regions of this phenomenon. Anthropological studies are not lacking, from a local to a pan-European scale, and range from analysis of cranial morphology to the chemical composition of bones. Mobility (partial, total, or varying, depending on the approach employed) is often associated with the appearance of the Bell Beaker complex. The specific cranial morphology of Bell Beaker individuals forms the basis for this interpretation: a brachycephalic skull with flattened occipital. Such morphology has long been considered as definitive proof for population movements during the emergence of the Bell Beaker period (Menk 1979, 1981). Today, other approaches, such as isotopic geochemistry of bone

(Chiaradia et al. 2003; Price et al. 2004; etc) and nonmetric traits (e.g., Desideri and Eades 2004; Desideri 2007; Besse et al. 2007; Piguet et al. 2007; Desideri et al., submitted), are being applied. For Switzerland, the Bell Beaker period would have developed following significant influences from both the Mediterranean and Central Europe (Gallay 2006), with western influences resulting from an ideological phenomenon, while eastern influences would have derived from population movement. Our previous research on dental nonmetrics (Desideri 2007; Desideri et al., submitted) supports the idea of a certain harmony in Middle Neolithic populations and variability in later populations, likely reflecting mobility or a moderate population contribution beginning during the Final Neolithic, and continuing more intensely during the Bell Beaker period. The aim of this paper is to identify the provenance of the population contribution at the end of the western Swiss Neolithic, and more specifically during the Bell Beaker period, through analysis of nonmetric dental traits. To do so, we compare the dental morphology of Swiss pre-Bell Beaker (Final Neolithic), Bell Beaker, and post-Bell Beaker (Early Bronze Age) populations with that of contemporaneous populations found not only in the eastern sphere (Czech Republic and Hungary), but also in the southern sphere (southern France and northern Spain).

Bell Beaker phenomenon in western Switzerland: archaeological and anthropological background The Swiss territory is located in an intermediary position between the western and eastern Europe. Archaeological material, unequally distributed across Switzerland, demonstrates the westeast duality of Bell Beaker traditions (Gallay 2006). The Bell Beaker appeared during the second half of the 3rd millennium BCbetween 2500 and 2200 BCat the end of the Neolithic, and was succeeded by the Early Bronze Age. Bell Beaker discoveries depend on the state of advancement of research, and, with some exceptions, sites are located in the western and northern zones of Switzerland (Besse 2006). The Neolithic funerary ritual is well known in western Switzerland (Desideri and Besse 2009). The Middle Neolithic is characterized by burials of Chamblandes types. An initial occupation (4800 and 4300 BC) is composed of cemeteries containing mainly individual graves. It is possible to demonstrate changes in funerary rituals during the second half of the 5th millennium BC. This second phase (4300 and 3300 BC) is marked by the appearance of collective burials in the Chamblandes cists. Burials may be double or multiple, simultaneous or successive. These burials constitute elements foreshadowing the collectiviza-

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159 Table 1 List of the studied sites (identification numbers are those represented on Fig. 1) Country and site Switzerland 1. Petit-Chasseur: Final Neolithic (dolmen M6 - 40 -, dolmen M12 120 -); Bell Beaker (dolmen M6 - 10 -, dolmen M11 - 13 -); Early Bronze Age (15) 2. Aesch: Bell Beaker (50) 3. Barmaz: Early Bronze Age (17) Czech Republic 4. Bilina: Final Neolithic (3) 5. Blsany: Final Neolithic (1); Early Bronze Age (11) 6. Brandysek: Bell Beaker (17) 7. Brestany: Final Neolithic (6) 8. Brezno: Final Neolithic (2); Bell Beaker (1); Early Bronze Age (37) 9. Brodce: Early Bronze Age (15) 10. Cachovice: Final Neolithic (34); Bell Beaker (5) 11. Chotebudice: Final Neolithic (1); Early Bronze Age (6) 12. Citov: Final Neolithic (1) 13. Dobromerice: Final Neolithic (1) 14. Drevcice: Final Neolithic (1) 15. Hrdlovka: Final Neolithic (2) 16. Hrusov: Early Bronze Age (5) 17. Klenec: Final Neolithic (1) 18. Klucov: Final Neolithic (4) 19. Knezeves: Bell Beaker, (13) 20. Konobrze: Final Neolithic (1) 21. Kozly: Bell Beaker (1) 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. Kuclin: Final Neolithic (1) Libochovice: Bell Beaker (1) Lochenice: Bell Beaker (10) Male Brezno: Early Bronze Age (3) Male Cicovice: Final Neolithic (1); Early Bronze Age (2) Ml. Bol. Cejeti: Early Bronze Age (8) Mochov: Bell Beaker (21) Most: Final Neolithic (1) Obrnice: Final Neolithic (4) Patokryje: Final Neolithic (1) Pha5-Jinonice: Final Neolithic (6) Pha5-Mala Ohrada: Early Bronze Age (47) Pha5-Nove Butovice: Early Bronze Age (3) Pha5-Reporyje: Bell Beaker (1) Pha5-Smichov: Early Bronze Age (6) Pha8-Bohnice: Early Bronze Age (3) Pha8-Cimice: Final Neolithic (1); Early Bronze Age (6) Pha8-Kobylisy: Bell Beaker (2) Pha9-Cakovice: Final Neolithic (2); Early Bronze Age (10) Pha9-Kbely: Early Bronze Age (3) Plotiste n. Lab.: Bell Beaker (1); Early Bronze Age (13) Polaky: Final Neolithic (7) Prosetice: Final Neolithic (1)

tion of tombs that developed at the end of the Neolithic with the appearance of megalithic tombs (Moinat and Gallay 1998). The most extensive practice during the Final Neolithic and the Bell Beaker period is thus the collective burial. Despite gaps, it is possible to follow the same pattern in northern Switzerland. The eastern part of Switzerland lies outside the range of megalithic burials. Some Bell Beaker single graves in the ground follow the tradition observed in the eastern domain (Moinat and Stckli 1995). At the beginning of the Early Bronze Age, single graves reappear and cist burials and tumuli appear. Pre-Bell Beaker settlements are the famous Swiss lake dwellings; however, a few settlements are attested in the inland or at high elevations (Hasenfratz and Gross-Klee 1995; Besse et al. 2009). In contrast, Bell Beaker domestic structures are primarily terrestrial sites (Besse 2006). These are mainly known in western Switzerland. Based on the archaeological data, the origin of the Bell Beaker in Switzerland could have been the result of more or less marked influences from both the southern domain (ideological influences) and the eastern domain (human migrations) (Gallay 2006). Different anthropological studies note a high degree of homogeneity in pre-Bell Beaker populations (Menk 1979, 1981; Eades 1996; Desideri 2007; Chiaradia et al. 2003). By contrast, results for successive populations are more uncertain, sometimes suggesting population continuity (Eades 1996), sometimes population renewal (e.g., Menk 1979, 1981; Chiaradia et al. 2003). Our previous research on dental nonmetrics (Desideri 2007; Desideri et al., submitted) supports the idea of a certain harmony in Middle Neolithic populations and variability in later populations, likely reflecting mobility or a moderate population contribution beginning at the end of the Final Neolithic.

Materials The work presented here is based on analysis of 1,674 individuals from five regions with Bell Beaker occupations: Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, southern France, and northern Spain. The studied samples and analyzed groups are presented, respectively, in Tables 1 and 2. Figure 1 presents the geographical localization of the sites. Switzerland, the region for which we seek to measure and describe the external population contribution during the Bell Beaker, is represented by a sample of 265 individuals chronologically situated between the Final Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age. Sample sizes range from 10 to 120 individuals. The Final Neolithic is present only in the megalithic area of Petit-Chasseur (no. 1), in dolmens M6 (during its first occupation phase) and M12. The site of

160 Table 1 (continued) Country and site 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. Radovesice: Final Neolithic (3); Bell Beaker (12) Rosnice: Bell Beaker (1) Rvenice I.: Bell Beaker (1); Early Bronze Age (5) Rvenice II: Early Bronze Age (1) Selibice: Bell Beaker (1) Siroke Trebcice: Final Neolithic (2) Skupice-Stracotin: Bell Beaker (1) Skyrice: Final Neolithic (1) Sobesuky: Final Neolithic (3) Stadice: Final Neolithic (3) Stara Kourim: Final Neolithic (1) Table 1 (continued) Country and site

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90. La Velilla: Final Neolithic (50) 91. Las Arnillas: Chalcolithic/Bell Beaker (24) 92. Los Cercados: Chalcolithic (1) 93. Los Zumacales: Final Neolithic (18) 94. Valle de las Higueras: Chalcolithic (tumulus 8, cuevas 30); Bell Beaker (9) 95. Villimar: Chalcolithic (1)

56. Sulejovice: Final Neolithic (8); Bell Beaker (1); Early Bronze Age (4) 57. Svepravice: Final Neolithic (1) 58. Trmice: Final Neolithic (11) 59. Tuchomerice: Bell Beaker (1) 60. Tursko: Early Bronze Age (6) 61. Tvrsice: Early Bronze Age (2) 62. Velke Prilepy: Bell Beaker (6) 63. Vikletice: Final Neolithic (90); Early Bronze Age (3) 64. Vrany: Early Bronze Age (3) 65. Zabovresky: Bell Beaker (1) 66. Zabrusany: Final Neolithic (1) Hungary 67. Albertfalva: Bell Beaker (1) 68. Bekasmegyer: Bell Beaker (14) 69. Csepel-Vizmu: Bell Beaker (3) 70. Deszk A: Nagyrev (14) 71. Dunakeszi Szekesdulo: Nagyrev (1) 72. Hodmezovasarhely-Kopancs: Perjamos (2) 73. Kiskundorozsma: Obeba-Pitvaros (4) 74. Pitvaros: Nagyrev (19) 75. Rakoczifalva: Nagyrev (1) 76. Sandorfalva-Eperjes: Obeba-Pitvaros (5) 77. Szeged III-Homokbanya: Obeba-Pitvaros (1) 78. Szigetszentmiklos: Bell Beaker (1) 79. Szoreg: Perjamos (24) Southern France 80. Boileau: Final Neolithic (130) 81. Cudieres: Early Bronze Age (98) 82. Peyraoutes: Bell Beaker/Chalcolithic (172) 83. Roaix: Chalcolithic layer C2 (49); Chalcolithic layer C5 (92) 84. Villedubert: Bell Beaker (70); unknown (19) Northern Spain 85. Cerro de la Cabeza: Chalcolithic (8) 86. Cueva del Destete: Bell Beaker (5) 87. El Tomillar: Chalcolithic (3) 88. Fuente Olmedo: Bell Beaker (1) 89. La Sima: Final Neolithic (22); Bell Beaker (3)

Aesch (no. 2) and the two dolmens of the cemetery at PetitChasseur (no. 1) (M6 by re-occupation of the funerary chamber of the Final Neolithic and M11 by building of their own monument) are attributed to the Bell Beaker. The Early Bronze Age includes two samples, the first from the site of Barmaz (no. 3) and the second from several burials at the cemetery at Petit-Chasseur (no. 1). The eastern domain includes assemblages from the Czech Republic and Hungary. The Czech Republic, often considered as one of the major actors in Bell Beaker population history, represents the eastern-type occupation. The Bell Beaker developed during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, in an intermediate position between the Corded Ware and the Unetice cultures. These phases are not chronologically successive, but rather an intercalation of all three. In effect, the Bell Beaker co-existed first with the Corded Ware and then with the proto-Unetice culture. For this region, the populations analyzed belong to the Final Neolithic (Corded Ware Culture), Bell Beaker and Early Bronze Age (Unetice Culture). A total of 506 individuals from 63 sites are included in the analysis. These sites are mainly located in the central and northern areas of Bohemia. Two sites, Lochenice (no. 24) and Plotiste n. Labem (no. 42), are located in the eastern region. Sample sizes vary from 1 to 90 individuals. Among the sites, 24 belong to the Corded Ware culture, 14 to the Bell Beaker and 13 to the Early Bronze Age (Unetice culture). Added to this are 12 mixed sites. Only 2 sites have individuals from all three of the cultures studied. These are Brezno (no. 8) and Sulejovice (no. 56). The sites of Cachovice (no. 10) and Radovesice (no. 45) are both Corded Ware and Bell Beaker. Plotiste n. Labem (no. 42) and Rvenice I. (no. 47) contain burials from the Bell Beaker and the Early Bronze Age. Finally, Blsany (no. 5), Chotebudice (no. 11), Male Cicovice (no. 26), Pha8-Cimice (no. 38), Pha9-Cakovice (no. 40) and Vikletice (no. 63) contain Corded Ware and Early Bronze Age occupations. The Hungarian Bell Beaker occupation, the Csepel-BellBeaker, is the only one in the eastern domain outside the zone of the Corded Ware substrate. It is found within the

Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2010) 2:157173 Table 2 Selected groups for analysis (identification numbers refer to Table 1) Country and perioda Switzerland Early Bronze Age BAvs Bell Beaker BBae BBpc Final Neolithic FNpc12 FNpc6 Czech Republic Early Bronze Age BAwb BAcb BAeb BAbr BAmo Bell Beaker BBwb BBcb BBeb BBmo Final Neolithic FNwb FNcb FNeb FNvi Hungary Early Bronze Age III NAG PER Early Bronze Age II BB OB-PIT Southern France Early Bronze Age BAcu Bell Beaker BBvi Final Neolithic FNro5 FNro2 FNbo Mixed periods UNvi FN/BBpe Northern Spain Bell Beaker Group Site number

161

Canton of Valais samples Aesch Petit-Chasseur Petit-Chasseur, M12 Petit-Chasseur, M6

1, 3 2 1 1 1

32 50 23 120 40

West Bohemia Central Bohemia East Bohemia Brezno Mala Ohrada West Bohemia Central Bohemia East Bohemia Mochov West Bohemia Central Bohemia East Bohemia Vikletice

5, 11, 25, 47, 48, 56, 61, 63, 64 26, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 60 9, 16, 27, 42 8 33 21, 23, 45, 46, 47, 49, 51, 56, 62 6, 19, 35, 39, 59, 62 8, 10, 24, 42 28 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 22, 29, 30, 31, 43, 44, 45, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 58, 66 7, 14, 18, 26, 32, 38, 40, 55, 57 8, 10 63

38 36 41 38 47 20 40 17 21 58 24 36 90

Nagyrev (North) Perjamos (South) Bell Beaker (North) Obeba-Pitvaros (South)

70, 71, 74, 75 72, 79 67, 68, 69, 78 73, 76, 77

35 26 19 10

Cudieres Villedubert Roaix C5 Roaix C2 Boileau Villedubert (Final Neolithic/ Bell Beaker) Peyraoutes

81 84 83 83 80 84 82

98 70 92 49 130 19 172

162 Table 2 (continued) Country and perioda BBdiv Chalcolithic CHvh Chdiv Final Neolithic FNls FNlv FNlz Mixed periods FN/Bbla
a

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Group various Bell Beaker samples Valle de las Higueras various Chalcolithic samples La Sima La Velilla Los Zumacales Las Arnillas (Final Neolithic/Bell Beaker)

Site number 86, 88, 89, 94 94 85, 87, 92, 95 89 90 93 91

n 18 38 13 22 50 18 24

See Results for explanation of abbreviations

middle phase of the Early Bronze Age, during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, and is limited to the region around Budapest. The assemblages analyzed for Hungary include 90 individuals from 13 sites located in the northcentral and southern regions. These samples are attributed to the Bell Beaker and to contemporaneous (ObebaPitvaros) or succeeding (Nagyrev, Perjamos) cultures. Samples sizes vary widely, from 1 to 24 individuals. The Early Bronze Age II is represented by Bell Beaker assemblages from Albertfalva (no. 67), Bekasmegyer (no. 68), Csepel-Vizmu (no. 69) and Szigetszentmiklos (no. 78), and also by sites from the Obeba-Pitvaros culture, including Szeged III-Homokbanya (no. 77), Kiskundorozsma (no. 73) and Sandorfalva-Eperjes (no. 76). The Early Bronze Age III is represented by the sites of Deszk A (no. 70), Dunakeszi Szekesdulo (no. 71), Pitvaros (no. 74) and Rakoczifalva (no. 75) belonging to the Nagyrev culture and by Hodmezovasarhely-Kopancs (no. 72) and Szoreg (no. 79) belonging to the Perjamos culture. The southern domain includes two regions important for the Bell Beaker: southern France and northern Spain. The situation in southern France is not among the simplest. The typical funerary practice during the Bell Beaker was the re-use of collective burials dating to the end of the Neolithic. These thus contain several occupations which are sometimes difficult to separate. The populations studied here, comprising 630 individuals and 5 sites located for the most part in the eastern part of the region, are associated with the Final Neolithic, the Bell Beaker, and the Early Bronze Age. Only Villedubert (no. 84) is located in the western part of the region considered. Sample sizes range between 19 and 172 individuals. Assemblages are complex from the point of view of cultural attribution. Villedubert (no. 84) has two distinct cultural phases dating to the Final Neolithic and the Bell Beaker. For this site, we were able to study two

assemblages, one of which is Bell Beaker and a second which is indeterminate, containing a mixture that cannot be separated. Peyraoutes (no. 82) also contains two occupations, including one (layer 2; C2) which may be Bell Beaker and another which would be Final Neolithic (layer 5; C5). Unfortunately, reworking of the layers (Bouville 1971; Lemercier 2002) limits us to working with a single Final Neolithic/Bell Beaker group without separation. Roaix (no. 83) contains two Final Neolithic occupations: layer 2 (C2) and layer 5 (C5). Boileau (no. 80) has been attributed to the Final Neolithic. Cudieres (no. 81) belongs to the Early Bronze Age. The Iberian Peninsula is a significant region for understanding the Bell Beaker phenomenon. The Bell Beaker developed during the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, during the recent phase of the Chalcolithic and coexisted with it until the emergence of the Early Bronze Age. For this region, the populations analyzed are attributed to the Final Neolithic, the Chalcolithic, and the Bell Beaker and include 183 individuals from 11 sites in the Meseta. The sites are mainly located in the northern part of the Meseta; only the site of la Valle de las Higueras (no. 94) is found in the southern part of the region. Samples sizes vary from 1 to 50 individuals. The Final Neolithic is represented by individuals from collective tombs, such as La Sima (no. 89), La Velilla (no. 90) and Los Zumacales (no. 93). The Chalcolithic is represented by burials at the sites of Cerro de la Cabeza (no. 85), El Tomillar (no. 87), Los Cercados (no. 92), Valle de las Higueras (no. 94) and Villimar (no. 95). The Bell Beaker itself is represented by burials at Cueva del Destete (no. 86), Fuente Olmedo (no. 88), La Sima (no. 89), and Valle de las Higueras (no. 94). Las Arnillas (no. 91) has two funerary occupations, Chalcolithic and Bell Beaker. The human remains from the two occupations cannot be isolated and are here considered as a single assemblage.

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163

Fig. 1 Geographical distribution of the studied sites (identification numbers refer to Table 1)

Methods Dental nonmetric traits are a valuable tool for understanding relationships between populations. First, dentition is one of the most resistant elements of the skeleton, and thus often the best preserved. Second, nonmetric dental traits can be observed on living people, and research on genetic determinism is facilitated by direct analysis of related or twins. Scientific progress has also contributed to improving understanding of the mechanisms and processes involved in odontogeny. A total of 49 binary or graduated dental traits, listed in Table 3, representing 340 possible observations per individual were recorded belonging to the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System (ASU-DAS) (Turner et al. 1991) and the Freiburg University Dental Trait System (FU-DTS) (Alt 1997). Some changes have been made in the scales of certain traits proposed by the different recording systems. Three kinds of changes have been made: the merging of two variables, a simplification of the recording and a reorganization of the scale of expression. Two variables were merged. The first merged

trait is congenital absence (congenital absence and the size reduction of the peg-shaped tooth form of incisors and molars). The second variable is the molar root number (including pyramidalismroot in the form of a single conein the first expression of the number of roots for molars). We have opted for a simplified recording of presence/absence for two variables, mid trigonid crest and tuberculum Citroen. For winging of the upper central incisors, the ASU-DAS system applies a scale of four phases based on their position. Two sub-phases are present for bilateral rotationmesiolingually rotated incisors (phase 1A: angle >20, and 1B: angle <20). This has been simplified by merging the two phases for bilateral rotation, retaining only the presence of rotation and ignoring the angle formed by the incisors. The scale of expression has been altered for two traits, tuberculum dentale and metaconulid. These transformations do not change the definitions proposed by the different recording systems; the expressions of these traits are simply continuously numbered, without the addition of subdivisions. The remaining traits selected have been recorded in conformity with the definitions established by the different systems and authors.

164 Table 3 Nonmetric dental traits observed with mention of teeth recorded, scale and system used
Dental trait Congenital absence Radical number Radiculae appendiciformes Canine root number Premolar root number Tomes root Molar root number Radix paramolaris Idiopathische radices Radix Carabelli Radix Citroen Radix entomolaris Winging Labial convexity Interruption groove Akzessorische Hckerchen Cingulum Double-shoveling Shoveling Tuberculum dentale Talon cusp Canine distal accessory ridge Canine mesial ridge Odontome Accessory cusp Lingual cusp variations Enamel extensions Parastyle Carabelli's trait Metacone Hypocone Metaconule Distal accessory tubercle Mesial paracone tubercle Mesial accessory tubercle Protoconule Lingual paracone tubercle Deflecting wrinkle Anterior fovea Mid trigonid crest Distal trigonid crest Cusp number Groove pattern Protostylid Hypoconulid Entoconulid Metaconulid Tuberculum paracone Tuberculum Citroen Tooth recorded I2, P2, M3, I1, P2, M3 All teeth I, C, P CP1, P2 P1 Molars Molars Molars M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 I1 I1, I2 I1, I2 I1, I2 I1, I2 I, C, P I, C, P I1, I2, CI1, I2, CCanines CPremolars P1, P2 P1, P2 P1, P2, M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1 M1 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 M1, M2, M3 Scale (03) (18) (01) (12) (13) (05) (14) (01) (01) (01) (01) (01) (14) (04) (01) (01) (01) (01) (07) (07) (06) (05) (03) (01) (01) (09) (03) (06) (07) (06) (06) (01) (05) (01) (01) (01) (01) (03) (04) (01) (01) (46) (X/+/Y) (07) (05) (05) (05) (01) (01)

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Dental system ASU-DAS (changed) ASU-DAS FU-DTS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS (changed) FU-DTS FU-DTS FU-DTS FU-DTS FU-DTS ASU-DAS (changed) ASU-DAS ASU-DAS FU-DTS FU-DTS FU-DTS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS (changed) ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS FU-DTS ASU-DAS FU-DTS FU-DTS FU-DTS FU-DTS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS (changed) ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS ASU-DAS (changed) FU-DTS FU-DTS (changed)

C Canines, I incisors, M molars, P premolars ASU-DAS Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System, FU-DTS Freiburg University Dental Trait System

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165

We measured the accordance between the determination of teeth and the observations of nonmetric dental traits. Evaluation of the accordance of determination of the dentition was carried out. We were able to show evidence for different kinds of errors (notation, lateralization, interarcade, interdistrict and interdentition). Disagreements were not common. The most typical error was that of incorrect identification of the number attributed during excavation (n=79); teeth with this type of error were eliminated. Evaluation of the accordance of modes of observation of nonmetric dental traits yielded interesting results. Intra-observer results indicate that differences in gradations between recording sessions are minimal and thus negligible. By contrast, differences between observers were slightly more numerous and confirm the difficulty of using data that have not been directly collected by the researcher. A preliminary treatment of data was done. In an initial phase of refining the data, traits that were never observed, that had a constant expression, or were extremely rare were eliminated. Next, bilateral expression was treated. Among the different methods used, two were retained: the lateral count method (the left arbitrarily selected here) and the individual count method developed by Scott (1977). The samples were treated according to the specificity of the sites: individual count for sites permitting individualization of the subjects (individual burials from the eastern domain) and lateral count for those with mostly isolated teeth (collective burials from the southern domain and Switzerland). Relationships between variables (intertrait, intra- and interdistrict correlations) were measured and sexual dimorphism was tested. One tooth (key tooth) by morphological class was retained, corresponding to teeth defined by the ASU-DAS system as the most significant for interpopulational analyses (Turner et al. 1991; Scott and Turner 1997). After this preliminary treatment, 30 dental traits were retained for analysis. Frequencies were calculated by applying the expression count method developed by Turner (1985) which obtains an adjusted frequency taking into account all of the information provided by the gradations. This was carried out in two steps: obtainment of a unique frequency followed by the introduction of a correction factor taking into account the sample size. The adjusted frequencies are listed in Table 4. The analytical phase includes the integration of two complementary multivariate methods. Hierarchical cluster analysisWard methodwas retained and the results are presented as dendrograms. This was complemented by the bootstrap analysis developed by Efron (1979). This is a method of resampling that consists in weighting the traits randomly, with the aim of evaluating the robustness of a tree in the form of percentages (Darlu and Tassy 1993). Next, multidimensional scaling (MDS) was done. These results are presented as scatter plots. MDS was comple-

mented by a minimal spanning tree (MST) to determine the direction of relationships between groups. All analyses were carried out using PAST (PAlaeontological STatistics, version 1.67) (Hammer and Harper 2005).

Results Our objective is to measure possible populational impacts during the end of the Neolithicand more specifically during the Bell Beakerin Switzerland and to identify the nature of the relationships with the eastern and southern domains. Eastern influences were tested by analyses including, apart from the Swiss populations, samples from the Czech Republic and Hungary. Both types of analysis show comparable configurations (Fig. 2). Hierarchical cluster analysis followed by bootstrap analysis shows a dichotomy between Swiss and eastern populations (Fig. 2a). Significant groups can be distinguished. The first contains all the Swiss sites, as well as two other groups: the Early Bronze Age of western Bohemia (BAwb) and the Hungarian Bell Beaker (BB). The second group is formed of the Early Bronze Age Unetice assemblages from the Czech Republic (BAcb, BAbr, BAeb and BAmo), within which are included the western Bell Beaker (BBwb) and the eastern Corded Ware (FNeb). The third and final group is formed by the Czech Corded Ware and Bell Beakers and by different Hungarian periods, except for the Bell Beaker. We find the same configuration in the scatter plot resulting from multidimensional scaling followed by a minimal spanning tree (Fig. 2b). The Czech Early Bronze Age here also shows a uniform concentration. The Czech Corded Ware and Bell Beaker assemblages, by contrast, are more heterogeneous. The Swiss sites are also grouped, with the exception of the Early Bronze Age (BAvs) which is associated with the Hungarian Bell Beaker (BB). The other Hungarian assemblages are distinguished from the regional Bell Beaker and are somewhat isolated. The southern influences were tested by analyses including samples from southern France and northern Spain. Both types of multivariate analysis again show similar organization (Fig. 3). Hierarchical cluster and bootstrap analysis show two strong groups (Fig. 3a). The first includes the earliest samples from southern France (FNro5, FNro2 and FNbo), the indeterminate assemblage from Villedubert (UNvi), the site of Los Zumacalles (FNlz) and the Chalcolithic group from the Iberian Peninsula (CHdiv). The only Bell Beaker assemblage present is from Villedubert (BBvi). The second group is formed by the set of Swiss samples and by the majority of later Iberian and French groups (FN/BBpe, BAcu, BBdiv, FNla). The Spanish sites of Velilla (FNlv) and Valle de las Higueras

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Table 4 Frequencies according to the expression count method (EC) developed by Turner 1985 for the traits included in the multivariate analysis
Czech Republic FNpc6 EC 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.15 0.03 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.18 0.18 0.03 0.02 0.20 0.28 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.24 0.05 0.19 0.03 0.00 0.00 22 0.00 25 0.00 6 0.00 19 0.00 15 16 17 0.00 25 0.03 15 19 0.28 24 0.29 15 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 21 0.06 25 0.04 16 0.01 20 0.24 24 0.28 14 0.08 8 10 9 13 12 13 12 0.12 17 0.12 11 0.04 5 12 0.00 17 0.00 10 0.00 5 0.00 0.23 0.30 0.08 0.36 0.02 0.03 0.00 22 0.00 22 0.00 15 0.00 11 0.00 22 0.22 22 0.33 15 0.19 12 0.37 63 62 64 64 66 65 66 67 54 65 22 0.16 24 0.20 14 0.15 9 0.28 65 5 0.02 15 0.00 9 0.06 9 0.02 56 0.01 0.23 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.26 0.07 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.02 5 0.02 16 0.00 6 0.00 5 0.00 51 0.02 8 0.29 17 0.41 10 0.33 11 0.67 64 0.78 48 39 43 38 38 38 39 39 45 44 44 45 38 44 8 0.35 18 0.39 10 0.36 12 0.65 64 0.78 48 7 0.10 15 0.12 9 0.04 6 0.10 58 0.07 45 0.10 0.64 0.62 0.05 0.02 0.17 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.31 0.06 0.37 0.00 0.05 0.00 8 0.00 15 0.00 10 0.00 14 0.00 64 0.00 48 0.00 24 22 25 24 19 22 19 19 19 22 22 28 25 28 28 22 26 21 0.00 11 0.00 6 0.00 14 0.00 55 0.00 33 0.02 16 11 0.00 8 0.00 5 0.02 8 0.00 49 0.01 37 0.00 18 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.79 0.83 0.00 0.07 0.17 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.33 0.08 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 21 0.05 13 0.03 6 0.03 7 0.10 45 0.09 29 0.09 13 0.08 7 0.00 15 0.00 9 0.00 12 0.00 58 0.02 36 0.00 18 0.00 12 11 14 14 21 15 21 21 18 19 13 13 13 15 15 17 16 17 17 18 17 7 0.00 15 0.00 9 0.00 12 0.00 58 0.00 36 0.00 18 0.00 12 7 0.30 15 0.37 9 0.41 13 0.64 58 0.61 36 0.47 18 0.50 12 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.72 0.71 0.00 0.11 0.13 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.25 0.06 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 17 0.00 13 0.00 8 0.00 13 0.00 48 0.00 28 0.00 16 0.00 13 0.00 17 0.03 13 0.07 8 0.06 12 0.09 48 0.14 28 0.15 16 0.17 13 0.05 9 9 8 8 8 9 11 12 15 11 15 15 9 12 9 9 9 13 13 14 13 14 14 13 14 12 0.09 9 0.15 8 0.13 10 0.27 50 0.29 32 0.19 15 0.29 16 0.28 11 7 0.16 16 0.17 9 0.13 8 0.33 59 0.33 37 0.25 18 0.27 13 0.20 8 0.41 0.29 0.06 0.00 0.82 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.92 0.87 0.00 0.09 0.33 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.41 0.08 0.46 0.06 0.00 0.00 23 0.00 16 0.00 7 0.01 14 0.00 49 0.02 31 0.00 12 0.01 8 0.00 8 0.04 10 0.00 10 0.00 7 0.00 12 0.00 60 0.00 36 0.00 19 0.00 14 0.00 11 0.00 12 11 14 11 9 9 14 14 14 9 10 10 16 15 16 16 11 15 13 13 13 13 12 15 15 15 14 13 15 16 0.00 10 0.00 7 0.10 13 0.06 50 0.05 35 0.01 11 0.03 13 0.00 8 0.02 10 0.05 0.00 0.03 0.30 0.16 0.04 0.00 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.11 0.78 0.75 0.00 0.04 0.22 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.35 0.08 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n 21 22 19 24 16 16 16 24 24 24 20 15 22 32 28 32 32 27 29 24 25 25 20 20 30 30 29 29 23 30 BBae BBpc BAvs FNvi FNwb FNeb FNcb BBwb BBeb BBcb BBmo EC 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.76 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.83 0.84 0.02 0.02 0.22 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.40 0.03 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 n 11 14 15 16 11 12 12 16 16 16 15 11 17 18 16 18 18 14 16 14 14 14 11 11 18 17 18 17 15 17

Dental trait

Switzerland

FNpc12a

EC

Congenital absence M3

0.01

46

Congenital absence P2

0.00

42

Congenital absence I2

0.01

60

Radical number M1

0.20

49

Radical number P1

0.16

48

Radical number C-

0.05

44

Radiculae appendicif. C-

0.00

45

Molar root number M1

0.41

49

Radix paramolaris M1

0.00

49

Idiopathische radices M1

0.00

49

Tuberculum dentale C-

0.05

48

Double-shoveling P1

0.00

39

Double-shoveling C-

0.00

46

Parastyle M1

0.01

56

Carabelli's trait M1

0.07

52

Metacone M1

0.40

55

Hypocone M1

0.40

55

Metaconule M1

0.00

46

Distal accessory tub. M1

0.04

47

Radical number M1

0.20

74

Molar root number M1

0.31

75

Radix entomomolaris M1

0.00

75

Odontome P2

0.00

48

Lingual cusp var. P2

0.12

48

Cusp number M1

0.32

85

Protostylid M1

0.04

81

Hypo-entoconulid M1

0.31

84

Metaconulid M1

0.01

81

Tuberculum paracone M1

0.01

47

Tuberculum Citroen M1

0.00

82

Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2010) 2:157173

See Results for explanation of abbreviations

Table 4 (continued)
Hungary BAeb n 16 20 16 21 16 12 12 21 21 21 13 14 15 23 15 24 23 13 15 19 19 19 18 18 22 21 22 21 24 21 0.00 29 0.00 0.00 28 0.00 16 19 0.01 28 0.02 18 0.32 25 0.24 18 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 25 0.04 16 0.03 0.30 26 0.22 18 0.30 31 29 30 31 26 30 0.25 27 0.20 20 0.24 30 0.00 25 0.00 19 0.00 30 0.00 0.04 0.16 0.02 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 23 0.00 16 0.00 28 0.00 0.27 23 0.24 16 0.30 28 0.16 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 7 0.19 23 0.15 17 0.20 28 0.10 6 0.00 20 0.01 18 0.01 17 0.05 10 0.06 0.23 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.30 0.04 0.37 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 19 0.00 16 0.00 15 0.00 9 0.00 0.57 26 0.61 23 0.57 28 0.53 10 0.80 28 17 22 24 24 24 20 20 21 22 21 20 20 19 0.59 27 0.55 23 0.53 28 0.49 10 0.79 28 0.03 22 0.09 15 0.00 17 0.04 9 0.12 23 0.13 1.00 0.97 0.00 0.09 0.36 0.55 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.45 0.03 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 26 0.00 23 0.00 28 0.00 9 0.00 28 0.00 11 8 10 10 6 8 10 10 10 9 9 10 9 9 8 7 10 0.00 22 0.00 23 0.00 23 0.00 8 0.01 24 0.00 9 0.00 22 0.00 19 0.00 24 0.00 7 0.02 24 0.00 10 0.09 19 0.11 19 0.08 20 0.04 7 0.05 21 0.04 8 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.80 0.80 0.00 0.05 0.23 0.35 0.00 0.04 0.15 0.42 0.07 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 24 0.00 20 0.00 27 0.00 9 0.00 27 0.00 11 0.00 19 22 22 22 21 20 21 21 14 19 18 18 18 20 20 23 23 22 23 19 22 0.00 24 0.00 20 0.00 27 0.00 9 0.00 27 0.00 11 0.00 19 0.59 24 0.54 20 0.56 27 0.45 9 0.76 27 1.10 11 0.73 19 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.72 0.73 0.00 0.02 0.24 0.37 0.00 0.01 0.22 0.28 0.04 0.23 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.04 17 0.00 18 0.00 17 0.00 8 0.00 15 0.00 5 0.00 9 0.00 0.10 18 0.13 18 0.06 18 0.03 8 0.06 17 0.00 5 0.00 9 0.06 36 35 73 73 73 76 78 85 92 80 96 96 62 71 94 94 94 83 85 95 88 69 93 93 95 0.23 19 0.32 23 0.26 24 0.13 7 0.23 18 0.30 6 0.21 11 0.13 42 0.29 24 0.29 21 0.28 27 0.24 9 0.39 27 0.55 11 0.37 19 0.28 73 0.17 0.20 0.07 0.00 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.29 0.29 0.04 0.03 0.14 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.16 0.02 0.18 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 22 0.01 19 0.00 22 0.00 5 0.06 27 0.03 9 0.01 22 0.03 89 0.00 0.00 26 0.00 24 0.00 28 0.00 9 0.00 28 0.00 10 0.00 22 0.00 92 0.01 63 75 58 71 63 63 55 55 53 62 69 68 49 50 56 56 42 43 53 53 54 86 86 57 54 54 56 25 53 0.02 21 0.07 20 0.01 22 0.02 5 0.08 24 0.00 8 0.03 20 0.14 75 0.00 44 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.25 0.10 0.00 0.67 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.11 0.93 0.93 0.00 0.03 0.23 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.51 0.06 0.55 0.00 0.00 0.01 EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n 55 91 66 65 54 45 45 65 65 65 62 79 66 87 81 90 89 73 77 62 59 59 56 56 92 92 87 89 55 89 BAcb BAmo BB NAG OB-PIT PER FNbo FNpe FNro5 Southern France FNro2 EC 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.23 0.07 0.00 0.72 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.77 0.73 0.02 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.19 0.03 0.20 0.01 0.02 0.00 n 21 49 34 42 23 17 17 39 39 39 27 26 28 36 34 39 39 27 28 13 12 12 16 16 18 17 17 17 11 17

Dental trait BAbr EC 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.22 0.05 0.00 0.55 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.55 0.57 0.00 0.01 0.15 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.28 0.04 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00

Czech Republic

BAwb

EC

Congenital absence M3

0.04

15

Congenital absence P2

0.00

22

Congenital absence I2

0.04

16

Radical number M1

0.26

20

Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2010) 2:157173

Radical number P1

0.24

18

Radical number C-

0.07

16

Radiculae appendicif. C-

0.00

15

Molar root number M1

0.50

20

Radix paramolaris M1

0.00

20

Idiopathische radices M1

0.00

20

Tuberculum dentale C-

0.08

13

Double-shoveling P1

0.00

18

Double-shoveling C-

0.00

21

Parastyle M1

0.00

18

Carabelli's trait M1

0.04

12

Metacone M1

0.46

20

Hypocone M1

0.43

18

Metaconule M1

0.00

10

Distal accessory tub. M1

0.01

13

Radical number M1

0.17

21

Molar root number M1

0.29

21

Radix entomomolaris M1

0.00

21

Odontome P2

0.00

22

Lingual cusp var. P2

0.22

22

Cusp number M1

0.21

23

Protostylid M1

0.05

21

Hypo-entoconulid M1

0.24

23

Metaconulid M1

0.00

23

Tuberculum paracone M1

0.00

22

Tuberculum Citroen M1

0.00

23

167

168

Table 4 (continued)
Northern Spain UNvi n 45 37 55 29 33 36 35 27 26 26 43 44 47 53 49 53 53 43 50 32 31 31 65 64 47 45 45 47 32 46 0.00 9 0.00 0.00 6 0.00 0.00 9 0.00 0.26 9 0.21 36 35 13 35 0.04 8 0.02 32 0.24 9 0.19 36 0.19 12 0.11 36 0.09 0.29 0.04 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10 0.00 35 0.00 0.00 5 0.00 33 0.00 28 18 18 31 26 31 31 20 30 0.13 5 0.17 33 0.29 28 0.09 5 0.11 33 0.20 29 0.07 17 0.00 31 0.00 16 0.00 0.09 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.17 0.02 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14 0.01 24 0.00 11 0.00 0.97 19 0.33 33 0.38 19 0.60 0.95 19 0.32 32 0.37 19 0.60 12 12 10 11 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 6 6 5 6 0.11 17 0.03 30 0.01 17 0.15 12 0.00 17 0.00 32 0.00 19 0.00 12 0.02 14 0.00 35 0.00 24 0.00 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.50 0.08 0.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8 0.00 34 0.00 18 0.00 8 0.00 0.10 14 0.04 28 0.07 22 0.00 5 0.08 8 12 13 10 10 10 10 6 8 27 26 25 21 23 26 24 24 26 10 22 0.00 10 0.00 28 0.00 16 0.00 10 0.00 10 0.00 10 0.00 28 0.00 17 0.00 10 0.00 10 0.53 10 0.28 28 0.31 16 0.56 10 0.42 10 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.42 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.50 0.08 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5 0.00 33 0.02 17 0.00 7 0.00 13 0.00 0.05 6 0.06 33 0.09 17 0.11 8 0.06 13 0.04 8 8 7 7 7 13 12 13 11 11 11 11 9 10 11 11 11 10 10 13 13 13 13 13 13 0.21 8 0.15 31 0.13 15 0.22 8 0.15 11 0.31 8 0.29 11 0.14 28 0.16 16 0.28 10 0.21 10 0.27 7 0.02 19 0.00 35 0.00 19 0.00 6 0.00 12 0.13 11 0.00 14 0.00 28 0.00 20 0.00 10 0.00 13 0.00 11 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.14 0.09 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.31 0.31 0.00 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.12 0.03 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 10 0.00 29 0.01 17 0.00 8 0.01 7 0.13 11 0.00 EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n EC n 13 14 16 10 11 13 13 9 9 9 16 12 19 12 10 12 12 9 12 8 7 7 11 12 10 9 10 10 9 9 BAcu FNlv FNlz FN/BBla Chdiv CHvh BBdiv EC 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.11 0.03 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.32 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.25 0.02 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 n 6 8 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 9 5 9 8 6 7

Dental trait

Southern France

BBvi

EC

Congenital absence M3

0.00

Congenital absence P2

0.00

Congenital absence I2

0.01

Radical number M1

0.21

Radical number P1

0.21

Radical number C-

0.09

Radiculae appendicif. C-

0.00

Molar root number M1

0.37

Radix paramolaris M1

0.00

Idiopathische radices M1

0.00

Tuberculum dentale C-

0.07

Double-shoveling P1

0.00

Double-shoveling C-

0.02

Parastyle M1

0.00

Carabelli's trait M1

0.12

Metacone M1

0.72

Hypocone M1

0.71

Metaconule M1

0.01

Distal accessory tub. M1

0.03

Radical number M1

0.16

Molar root number M1

0.21

Radix entomomolaris M1

0.00

Odontome P2

0.00

Lingual cusp var. P2

0.25

Cusp number M1

0.33

Protostylid M1

0.04

Hypo-entoconulid M1

0.34

Metaconulid M1

0.00

Tuberculum paracone M1

0.01

Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2010) 2:157173

Tuberculum Citroen M1

0.00

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169

Fig. 2 Switzerland, eastern domain. a Hierarchical cluster analysis (Ward algorithm) completed by a minimal spanning tree. b Multidimensional scaling completed by a bootstrap (MDS_stress: 0.078).

Geographical codes: Switzerland black symbols, Hungary gray symbols, Czech Republic white symbols. Chronological codes: Final Neolithic square, Bell Beaker star, Early Bronze Age circle

(CHvh) are attached to this group. The representation resulting from multidimensional scaling and a minimal spanning tree proposes a similar configuration (Fig. 3b). In effect, the late Iberian and French assemblages, as well as

the Swiss groups, present a uniform concentration. The Final Neolithic seems to be more variable. The single Bell Beaker sample isolated from the late periods is again the site of Villedubert (BBvi).

Fig. 3 Switzerland, southern domain. a Hierarchical cluster analysis (Ward algorithm) completed by a minimal spanning tree. b Multidimensional scaling completed by a bootstrap (MDS_stress: 0.050). Geograph-

ical codes: Switzerland black symbols, Southern France gray symbols, Northern Spain white symbols. Chronological codes: Final Neolithic square, Chalcolithic triangle, Bell Beaker star, Early Bronze Age circle

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Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2010) 2:157173

Discussion Previous research concerning peopling history during the Neolithic in western Switzerland using the analysis of dental morphology shows a strong cohesion of populations during the Middle Neolithic but also shows a certain degree of variability in later assemblages (Final Neolithic and Bell Beaker), which is probably due to mobility or a moderate population contribution during these periods (Desideri 2007; Desideri et al., submitted). It is this population contribution that we seek to identify more precisely through comparison of the dental morphology of the populations at the end of the Swiss Neolithic with contemporaneous populations in both the eastern sphere (Czech Republic and Hungary), and the southern sphere (southern France and northern Spain). Results of multivariate analyses are eloquent. The first analysis testing possible eastern populational influences gives a very clear picture of relationship between Switzerland and eastern Europe at the end of the Neolithic. Swiss populations group together and do not mix with assemblages from the eastern domain. It should be noted that while the Hungarian non-Bell Beaker assemblages are close to their Czech congenerics, the Hungarian Bell Beaker is clearly distinguished and seems much closer to its western contemporaries. The configuration of Bohemian populations corresponds perfectly to the view of the end of the Neolithic in eastern Europe: with populations from the Final Neolithic (Corded Ware culture) intermediate between the Bell Beaker and the Early Bronze Age (Unetice culture), telling elements of the involvement of the Corded Ware in the appearance of successive periods, which in contrast seem to evolve independently of one another. The second analysis testing possible southern influences clarifies relationships between Switzerland and southern Europe. The Swiss samples are grouped again, but this time associated with later Iberian and French periods. The earlier groups of the southern domain show more variability. This element can probably be explained by mobility or minor population exchanges during these periods. This does not appear to be the case in Swiss territory and for the later southern assemblages where the apparent uniformity would suggest an accentuation in population exchanges. So, we have seen that the Swiss sites do not mix with the eastern domain, but fit well with the southern domain. The axis of external influences is clearly southern, whether this occurred during the Final Neolithic or the Bell Beaker in western Switzerland. Discussing only the Bell Beaker period, these results conflict with interpretations based on earlier anthropological data (Menk 1979, 1981) used to construct scenarios of Bell Beaker settlement in this region with ideological influences from the south and population movements from the east (Gallay 2006).

In effect, the archaeological data have often shown southern influences in the western Swiss Bell Beaker, in particular with respect to funerary practices and domestic structures. The choice of burying the deceased in collective graves is incontestably attached to the cultural sphere of the western domain, the eastern domain practising almost exclusively individual burials (Besse and Desideri 2004; Desideri and Besse 2009). The exceptional megalithic area of Petit-Chasseur at Sion, included in these analyses, is an excellent example (Bocksberger 1976, 1978; Gallay and Chaix 1984; Gallay 1986; Favre and Mottet 1995). Bell Beaker occupants built their own monumentscollective burialsin a megalithic area that had already been frequented by their predecessors (the Final Neolithic). They also built a certain number of dolmens and cists, and then re-used the earlier structures. Similarly, habitat structures difficult to locate by their intrinsic naturealso provide elements that again support western influences in the formation of the Bell Beaker in this part of Switzerland. Domestic structures, represented by houses that could be reconstructed at the sites of Champ-Vully Est at Rances (Vaud) (Gallay and Baudais 1985) and Cortaillod (Neuchtel)(Von Burg 2002), are similar to those found in the west, but on a smaller geographic scaleonly in eastern France. The sites of Derrire-le-Chteau in the Ain (Hnon and Vrot Bourrely 1998) and Saint Marcel de la Noue in Burgundy (Salanova and Ducreux 2005) show pertinent similarities with those in Switzerland (Besse and Desideri 2004). By contrast, when we examine influences of Bell Beaker artifacts found in western Switzerland, responses are varied. Pottery in particular shows multiple influences. Decorated pottery, and especially the maritime beaker that specifically typifies the Bell Beaker culture, and the "Begleitkeramik" appear to form two inverse currents, the first with a southwest to northeast direction and the second originating in the east and spreading to the west and southwest (Piguet et al. 2007; Besse et al. 2009; Piguet and Besse 2009). Some ornamental objects, particularly silver loops from the cemetery at Petit-Chasseur at Sion, are comparable to those in the eastern domain (Besse 1998). The exploitation of copper ores for some objects used in the Alps and found at Petit-Chasseur at Sion also shows relationships with the south. But it is in Central Italy, in Tuscany, that the provenance of this raw material is found (Cattin 2008). We emphasize the interest in dissociating networks of cultural influences from those of people or even economic influences, since they are not all strictly superimposed, but which are nevertheless highly interlinked in Switzerland during the Final Neolithic and the Bell Beaker periods. We have seen that a moderate external population contribution present in the Final Neolithic was increased during the Bell Beaker in western Switzerland. Today, we

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can clarify, based on the analysis of nonmetric dental variability, that these were mainly people coming from the Mediterranean domain, which is in agreement with the archaeological data from the 3rd millennium BC. Switzerland is a territory showing an eastwest dichotomy of traditions. The sample selected for the analyses is formed primarily of sites belonging to the western part of Switzerland. We cannot exclude a connection from Central Europe to eastern Switzerland; this hypothesis was not tested here. Two important areas, southern Germany and Austria, are missing from the analysis. It would be very useful in the future to include these two areas for a better understanding of the peopling history of the 3rd millennium BC.

contribution starting in the Final Neolithic and continuing during the Bell Beaker.
Acknowledgments This research allowed us to visit many institutions, departments and museums, and it is to all the people met during our various trips that we would like to express our gratitude. So, in alphabetical order, the different institutions that welcomed us: Anthropologisches Forschungsinstitut (Aesch, Switzerland), Arcadia - Instituto de Promocion Cultural (Valladolid, Spain), Aquincum Museum (Budapest, Hungary), Archaeological Museum of Burgos (Burgos, Spain), Archaeological Museum of Valladolid (Valladolid, Spain), Department of Anthropology of the Hungarian Natural History Museum (Budapest, Hungary), Department of Anthropology of the National Museum (Prague, Czech Republic), Department of Anthropology of the University of Szeged (Szeged, Hungary), Department of History and Philosophy of the University of Alcal de Henares (Madrid, Spain), Department of Prehistory of the University of Valladolid (Valladolid, Spain), Laboratory of Anthropology of Past Populations at the University of Bordeaux (Bordeaux, France), Laboratory of Anthropology of the Faculty of Medicine North Sector of the University of the Mediterranean (Marseille, France), Provincial Archaeological Museum of Avila (Avila, Spain), Provincial Archaeological Museum of Palencia (Palencia, Spain), Service of Biological Anthropology in the Faculty of Medicine at the University of the Mediterranean (Marseille, France). We would like to thank Jean Gabriel Elia, Department of Anthropology, University of Geneva (Switzerland), for his knowledge and his help in graphic design and Rebecca Miller, Service of Prehistory, University of Lige (Belgium) for the translation of this paper. Finally, we would like to sincerely thank the Swiss National Science Foundation (FNS) for crucial financial support (FNS 101412-100599, FNS PP 001-102710 and grant GE-112885).

Conclusions The Bell Beaker culture, a major component of the European Chalcolithic, attracts interest as much by its diversity as by its uniqueness and is a real puzzle for European prehistory. Each region touched by this complex reveals its particularities. The Hungarian Bell Beaker occupationto cite only an original exampleis the easternmost extension of the phenomenon and is the only one in the eastern domain outside the zone of the Corded Ware substrate. It is integrated within the middle phase of the Early Bronze Age and is limited to the region around Budapest, the rest of Hungary remaining outside the Bell Beaker range. As for Switzerland, a region which, due to its location, benefited from composite influences throughout late prehistory, in this territory, the Bell Beaker shows a broad disparity in richness in the more than 40 sites discovered. Excluding the exceptional megalithic cemetery at PetitChasseur at Sion, many sites have only a few sparse artifacts. Nevertheless, the material recovered helps to decipher part of the Bell Beaker enigma. While funerary and domestic structures indicate a cultural attachment to different more or less clearly Bell Beaker traditions depending on whether they are found in eastern or western Switzerland, the more varied material muddles the situation. Such composite behavior results from varied influences. They are the consequence of a definite contribution that is both populational and ideological. In the context of this study, we have sought the provenance of the populational contribution at the end of the Neolithic and more specifically for the Bell Beaker in western Switzerland. Analysis of nonmetric dental variability has shown that a southern population contribution is clearly present in western Switzerland at the end of the Neolithic, thus confirming results of our earlier research on a regional scale that showed an external population

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