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A-18 Ababeel (AVD Final Report)
A-18 Ababeel (AVD Final Report)
Supervised By: Mr. Izhar Kazmi Asst. Professor Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad
Dedication
I dedicate this report to my Parents who supported me in every bad and good situation of my Life and always loved me when I am encircled with difficulties. And To my friends who have been with me for so long and changed my every Sorrow into a smile And To all of those who are working for the betterment of Islam and Pakistan!!!
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Acknowledgements
First of all I am thankful to ALLAH (s.w.t.) who gave me strength to complete this project. Secondly this project would not have been completed without my parents. They always supported me. And then I would like to thank my seniors specially Mr. Ahmed Ali Ansari, Mr.Ubaid and Mr. Omair Rabbani, who guided me at every stage. Finally I would like to thank Mr. Izhar Kazmi whose guidance was always helpful.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 8 1.1Design Proposal for A-18 Ababeel ................................................................................. 8 1.2Mission Requirements ................................................................................................... 8 1.3Performance Requirements 9 1.4 Stability Requirements 9 2. Selection of Reference Aircraft .......................................................................................... 10 3. Design Procedure ............................................................................................................... 12
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5.13 Wing Tips: .................................................................................................................... 34 5.14 Tail Geometry& Arrangement: .................................................................................... 34 5.15 Tail Arrangement:........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 6. Thrust-to-Weight Ratio & Wing Loading ........................................................................... 36 6.1 Thrust-to-Weight Ratio (T/W): ...................................................................................... 36 6.2 Wing Loading (W/S):...................................................................................................... 38 6.3 Selection of W/S: ........................................................................................................... 42 6.4 Rechecking of T/W using W/S: ...................................................................................... 42 7.Initial Sizing.......................................................................................................................... 44 7.1 Rubber-Engine Sizing: .................................................................................................... 43 7.2 Geometry Sizing: ........................................................................................................... 49 8. Configuration Layout.......................................................................................................... 54 9. Crew Station and Payload .................................................................................................. 55 9.1 Crew Station:............................................................................................................... 55 9.2 Weapons Carriage: ...................................................................................................... 56 10. Propulsion & Fuel System Integration ............................................................................. 57 10.1 Propulsion Selection: ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 10.2 Engine Dimensions: ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 10.3 Inlet Geometry: ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 10.4 Inlet Location: ............................................................................................................ 60 10.5 Capture Area Calculation:.......................................................................................... 60 10.6 Boundary-Layer Diverter: .......................................................................................... 61 10.7 Nozzle Integration: .................................................................................................... 62 10.8 Fuel System: .............................................................................................................. 62 11. Landing Gear & Subsystems ............................................................................................ 64 11.1 Landing Gear Arrangement: ..................................................................................... 64 11.2 Tire Sizing: ................................................................................................................. 65 11.3 Shock Absorber Type: ............................................................................................... 66 11.4 Stroke Determination: .............................................................................................. 67 11.5 Oleo sizing: ................................................................................................................ 69 11.6 Gear Retraction Assembly:........................................................................................ 69
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15. Weights ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 16. Performance Analysis....................................................................................................... 88 16.1 Thrust Required: ....................................................................................................... 88 16.2 Power Required: ....................................................................................................... 89 16.3 Rate of Climb: ........................................................................................................... 89 16.4 Absolute Ceiling: ....................................................................................................... 90 16.5 Gliding Performance: ................................................................................................ 91 16.6 Range: ....................................................................................................................... 91 16.7 Endurance: ................................................................................................................ 92 16.8 Level Turn:................................................................................................................. 92 16.9 Takeoff Distance: ...................................................................................................... 92 16. 9 Landing Distance: ..................................................................................................... 93 16.10 Energy maneuverability methods ........................................................................... 93 16.11 Comparison of Mission and Designed Parameter: ................................................. 95 17. Stability & Control ............................................................................................................ 96
17.1 C.G. Location .............................................................................................................. 96
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17.2 DATCOM Output File: ............................................................................................... 99 17.3 Longitudinal Equation of Motions: . 99 17.4 Lateral Equation of Motions: .................................................................................... 99 18. Cost Analysis ................................................................................................................... 101 References ........................................................................................................................... 103 Appendix A ........................................................................................................................... 104 Appendix B............................................................................................................................ 106 Appendix C............................................................................................................................ 107
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1. INTRODUCTION
Ground-attack aircraft are military aircraft designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, their own ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces requires precision strikes from these aircraft that are not possible with typical bomber aircraft. The resultant proximity to enemy targets also requires aircraft that are more robust than other types of military aircraft. Examples include the American A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Russian Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. They are typically deployed as close air support to ground forces; their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. A more general category is an attack aircraft which, in addition to ground-attack types, includes aircraft for naval air-to-surface missions. Attack aircraft are not necessarily intended for air-to-air combat. However, they are often equipped with air-to-air missiles for self-defense.
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Performance Parameters
Design Mach Range Rate of Climb Service Ceiling Takeoff Distance (S TO) Landing Distance (S L)
Details
1.1 1,800 nmi 15,000 ft./min 50,000 ft. 1,200 ft. 1,800 ft.
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When compared with the given requirements, Harrier GR-3 suits the best. And hence it is selected as a reference aircraft. Detail of other features/specifications is given below: General characteristics
Crew: One Length: 46 ft. 10 in (14.27 m) Wingspan: 25 ft. 3 in (7.70 m) Height: 11 ft. 11 in (3.63 m) Wing area: 201.1 ft (18.68 m) Empty weight: 13,535 lb. (6,140 kg) Max. takeoff weight: 25,200 lb. (11,430 kg) Power plant: 1 Rolls-Royce Pegasus 103 turbofan with four swiveling nozzles, 21,500 lb (95.6kN). Four vertical flight puffer jets use engine bleed air, mounted in the nose, wingtips, and tail. Performance
Maximum speed: 730 mph (635 knots, 1,176 km/h) at sea level Combat radius: 230 mi (200 nmi, 370 km) lo-lo-lo with 4,400 lb. (2,000 kg) payload Ferry range: 2,129 mi (1,850 nmi, 3,425 km) Endurance: 1 hr. 30 min (combat air patrol 115 mi (185 km) from base) Service ceiling: 51,200 ft. (15,600 m)
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3. Design Procedure
Following hierarchy was followed during the design phase.
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After this, analysis was done on the designed aircraft using different set of equations and software. Analysis part includes: Aerodynamics Analysis Propulsion Analysis Structure and Loads (V-n diagram) Weight of each component Performance Analysis Stability and Control Cost Analysis
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Fuel weight and the empty weight are the unknowns. Both of these can be expressed in terms of the fractions of the total takeoff weight.
Rearranging,
In above equation the payload weight is set such that the gross weight does not exceed the Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) limit. And the gross weight can be determined if fuel weight and empty weight fractions can be estimated.
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For a Jet fighter with a fixed sweep, A= 2.34 C= -0.13 We/W0 = AWcoKvs We/W0= 2.34W0-0.13 Kvs= 1
Fig 4.2 Mission Profile 4.3.2 Mission Segment Fractions: The various mission segments, or legs, are numbered for analysis, with zero denoting the start of the mission. Leg one, for first order estimation, is usually engine warm-up and takeoff. We assume that there is no payload drop in our initial estimation, so the aircraft loses weight only by burning fuel.
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a. Warmup & Takeoff: b. Climb: c. Cruise Out: Using Range equation, W1/W0= 0.97 W2/W1=0.985 (Table 4.2) (Table 4.2)
Range (R) = 900 nmi = 5468490 ft. At Mach= 1.1, SFC (c) = 0.8 /hr= 0.000222 /sec (Fig. 4.3)
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V= Ma= 1.1*968.1= 1064.91 ft./sec L/D = 0.866 L/D)max =0.866*14 = 12.124 d. Loiter (Attack): Using endurance equation,
W3/W2=0.910256
E= 40 min= 2400 sec SFC (c) = 0.7/hr. = 0.000194/sec e. Cruise Back: Same as c. f. Loiter (before landing): W4/W3=0.96729 W5/W4=0.910256
g. Land:
4.3.3 Fuel Fraction Estimation:
By multiplying the above weight fractions, the total mission weight fraction W 7/W0 can be determined.
0.752487
So the total fuel fraction using a 6% allowance for reserve fuel comes out to be:
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4.4 Takeoff Weight Calculations: Using the above values of fuel fraction and empty weight fraction, we can estimate the takeoff gross weight using the following equation.
Using above formula and considering 30000 lbs(MTOW) as a guess value and doing iteration we have calculated the Design Takeoff Gross Weight. Calculated Design Takeoff Gross Weight = 31931.10157 lbs.
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Table 4.4
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best way to do this is the Trade Study which describes the effect on overall weight due to the variation of payload and range. Table 4.5
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W= 31931.1057 lbs. (Estimated Weight) S (reference Area) = 230 ft2 (Reference Aircraft) For V= 1064.91 ft./s (Mcruise = 1.1) at 3700 ft. q= 384.437 psi Therefore, Cl= 0.3611
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Fig 5.1 Thickness ratio Historical Trends t/c is found to be 4.5 % at M= 1.1. Mach critical Mcric can also be found from figure 5.2, using t/c = 4.5% for Supercritical airfoil.
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Fig 5.2 Effect of t/c on Critical Mach number Mcric = 0.87 Based on the above calculated parameters i.e., Cl and t/c, NASA SC(2)-0404 is selected.
Fig 5.3
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Note that the reference wing is fictitious, and extends through the fuselage to the aircraft centerline. Thus the reference wing area includes the part of the reference wing that sticks into the fuselage.
Using formula for Aspect Ratio= aMCmax For jet fighter (other), a= 4.110 Therefore, AR= 3.194 C= -0.622 Mmax= 1.5
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For initial layout, LE and can be determined from historical trends given in figure 5.9 respectively.
Fig 5.9 Wing Sweep Historical Trend From above to figure, LE = 490 And c/4can be calculated from following formula,
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Fig 5.10 Effect of Sweep on Desired Taper Ratio Using this historical trend taper ratio is determined as, = 0.2
5.9 Twist:
Wing twist is used to prevent tip stall and to revise the lift distribution to approximate an ellipse. For initial design process, historical data suggests that 3 degrees of twist provide adequate stall characteristics.
Tip chord: Ctip= *Croot = 1.476 ft. Mean Aerodynamic chord (MAC): C = (2/3)*Croot*( ) = 10.03 ft.
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Location of MAC: Y= (b/6)*( The summarized geometric data of wing is given in table 5.3.
) = 5.106 ft.
Table 5.3 Summary of Wing Geometry Aspect Ratio Leading Edge Sweep LE Quarter chord Sweep c/4 Taper Ratio Wing Twist Wing Incidence Wing span b Root chord Croot Tip chord Ctip Mean Aerodynamic chord (MAC) C Location of MAC Y 3.194 490 42.60 0.15 30 00 27.10 ft 14.76 ft 2.214 ft 10.03 ft 5.106 ft
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Advantages: 1. Jet engines and armaments will have sufficient ground clearance without excessive landing gear length. 2. The wing tips of a swept high wing are not as likely to strike the ground when in a nose high, rolled attitude. 3. With the high wing aircraft you actually have more of wing area (The portion of the wing generally covered by the fuselage in a low wing installation) to contribute to the lift going around a turn. Disadvantages: 1. Fuselage weight is usually increased. 2. For small aircraft, the high wing arrangement can block the pilots visibility in a turn, obscuring the direction toward which the airplane is turning.
5.12 Dihedral:
Wing dihedral is the angle of the wing with respect to horizontal when seen from front. The dihedral angle is taken from the table 5.4. Table 5.4 Dihedral Guidelines
The above table predicts that dihedral for supersonic swept wing with High wing position is between -5 to 0. As the high wing configuration is selected for the design along with sweep, the lateral stability will increase and hence the aircraft will be less controllable. To maintain adequate control dihedral of -50 is selected.
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Fig 5.12 In the initial configuration selection, cut off, forward swept tip is used because the aircraft is supersonic fighter. The tip is cut off at an angle equal to supersonic mach cone angle to reduce the drag and torsional load supplied to the wing.
Fig 5.13 To give enough controlibility and manuevaribility to the aircraft, H-tail is selected. The advantages of H-tail include: 1. At high angle of attack, the vertical tail is not influence by the tubulent flow coming from fuselage.
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2. The vertical tail end-plate effect improves the aerodynamic performance of the horizontal tail. 3. In military/attack aircraft, the engine very hot exhast gases could be hidden from radars or infrared missiles. 4. The H-tail allows the twin vertical tail span to be shorter. 5. The lateral control of the aircraft will be improved due to the shorter vertical tail span. 6. The structural design of the H-tail is more tedious than conventional tail.
For the fighter aircraft following data is selected. Table 5.6 Horizontal Tail Aspect Ratio 3 Taper Ratio 0.4 Vertical Tail Aspect Ratio 1.4 Taper Ratio 0.4
Leading-edge sweep of the horizontal tail is usually set to 5 deg more than the wing sweep. This tends to make the tail stall after the wing, and also provides the tail with a higher critical Mach number than the wing. Vertical tail sweep varies between about 35 and 55 deg. For a high-speed aircraft, vertical tail sweep is used primarily to ensure the tails critical Mach number is higher than the wings.
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Table 6.1 provides curve-fit equation based upon maximum Mach number for different classes of aircraft. Table 6.1 T/W vs. Mmax
M max = 1.5 For Jet fighter (other) a= 0.514 Therefore, 6.1.2 Thrust Matching: T/W0 = 0.544 C= 0.141
Thrust-to-weight ratio at sea level, static conditions can also be determined by calculating thrust-toweight at takeoff (T/W) takeoff.
In above formula, we need (T/W) cruise, this is calculated consudering level, unaccelerated flight and hence thrust must be equal to drag likewise lift must be equal to weight. Thus,
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Fig 6.1 (L/D) cruise = 0.866(L/D) max = 0.866(12.2) = 10.565 Therefore, (T/W) cruise = 0.095
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For low BPR engine and cruising altitude of 37,000 ft., we have T takeoff / T cruise = 5.556. Also Wcruise/Wtakeoff = 0.956 (from historical data). Hence, 6.1.3 Climb T/W: (Design Requirement) (T/W) takeoff = 0.5046
Rate of climb at cruising altitude (37,000 ft.) = 15000 ft./min= 250 ft./sec (T/W) climb = 1/ (L/D) climb + V vertical/ V (T/W) climb = 1/ (0.75x12.2) + 250/1064.91 (T/W) climb = 0.344 Converting it to takeoff conditions i.e., dividing by W2/W0 = 0.95545 T/W = 0.3600
Comparing T/W calculated from statistical data, thrust matching and climb, the higher value among them is selected, T/W = 0.544
6.2.2 Stall Speed: The stall speed of an aircraft is directly determined by wing loading and the maximum lift coefficient.
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Wing speed at stall speed can be calculated assuming level flight and sea level conditions, W/S = (1/2) V2 stall S C Lmax C Lmax can be estimated from historical data. Figure 6.3 provides C Lmax vs. sweep at quarter chord.
Fig 6.3 Maximum Lift Coefficient For slotted flap and c/4 = 42.6 0: C Lmax = 1.8 V stall = 171 ft./sec So, 6.2.3 Takeoff Distance: The W/S at takeoff can be calculated from the formula, W/S = 67.248 lb./ft.2 (Reference Aircraft: Harrier GR-3)
Where = Density ratio = 1 (Sea Level) Takeoff parameter (TOP) can be found from figure 6.4
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Fig 6.4 Takeoff Distance Estimation As, Takeoff Ground Roll is given in requirements, Sg = 1200 ft. So TOP = 90 Also, Therefore, Hence, 6.2.4 Landing Distance: (W/S) landing = C Lmax x (S landing - Sa)/80 Where Sa (Obstacle Clearance Distance) = 450 ft. Also, Landing Ground Roll is given in requirements, Sg = 1800 ft. Therefore, (W/S) landing = 1.5 x (1800-4500)/80 (W/S) landing = 25.3125 lb./ft.2 The landing wing loading must be converted to takeoff conditions by dividing bt the ratio of landing weight to takeoff weight, W7/W0 = 0.752487 W/S = 33.638 lb./ft.2 6.2.5 Wing Loading for Cruise: For maximum range, W/S at cruise can be calculated from given formula, (W/S) cruise = q (AeC D0 / 3)1/2 V TO = 1.1 V stall C LTO = C Lmax / 1.21 = 1.24 W/S = 60.69 lb./ft.2
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Converting it to takeoff conditions i.e. dividing by W2/W0 = 0.95545 W/S = 77.827 lb./ft.2 6.2.6 Wing Loading for Loiter: For maximum endurance, W/S is given by, (W/S) loiter = q (AeC D0)1/2 With loiter velocity of 200 knots (337.562 ft./sec) (W/S) loiter = 13 lb./ft.2 Converting it to takeoff conditions, i.e. dividing by W3/W0 = 0.8713 W/S = 14.919 lb./ft.2 (NOTE: Too small for a fighter aircraft, so it will be ignored) 6.2.7 Instantaneous Turn: (W/S) combat = qC Lmax / n Where n is Load Factor = 7g (Reference aircraft: Harrier GR-3)
At corner speed = 350 knots (590.7334 ft./sec) and combat altitude of 30,000 ft. And C Lmax = 0.7 during combat. (W/S) combat = 11.8299 lb./ft.2 Again the instantaneous turn wing loading must be converted to takeoff conditions by dividing by the ratio of combat weight to takeoff weight which is taken as 0.85.
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W/S = 13.917 lb./ft.2 6.2.8 Sustained Turn: At Mach 1.1 and 37,000 ft. and a load factor of n = 4g. W/S can be calculated using following equation,
As,
(T/W) combat = (T/W) takeoff (W0/W4) (T combat/T takeoff) (T/W) combat = (0.50490) (1/0.85)(18000/29000) = 0.3685
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T/W = 0.546 The rechecked value is very close to the calculated value in 6.1.3.
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7. Initial Sizing
7.1 Rubber-Engine Sizing:
Aircraft sizing is the process of determining the takeoff gross weight and fuel weight required for an aircraft concept to perform its design mission. Sizing was introduced in the previous chapter of Gross takeoff Weight, in which a quick method based upon minimal information about the aircraft design was used to estimate the sizing parameters. That sizing method was limited to fairly simple design missions but now a more refined method of sizing is followed. Following equation will be used for the determination of Gross-Takeoff Weight:
7.1.1
The empty-weight fraction is estimated using improved statistical equation. Table 1, provides the relation between empty-weight fraction and the major design variables. Table 7.1
For Jet Fighter different constants are selected. Whereas other design parameters include, Mmax = 1.5 Therefore, We/W0 = 0.02 1.826W0-0.1 A= 3.194 T/W = 0.546 W/S= 59.32 Kvs = 1
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Figure 7.1 a. Takeoff: W1/W0 = 0.980 b. Climb: W2/W1 = 0.991 0.007M 0.01M2 = 0.991 0.007(1.1) 0.01(1.1)2 W2/W1 = 0.9712 c. Cruise Out:
W3/W2 =
= 0.799
CD0 = 0.014
At M=1.1, 37000ft and A= 3.194, (W/S)cruise = 74.36 So, Range (R) = 900 nmi = 5468490ft At Mach= 1.1, SFC (c) = 0.8 /hr = 0.000222 /sec Hence, d. Attack: W3/W2 = 0.8958 = 10.36
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W4/W3 =
With a loiter velocity of 200 knots (337.562 ft/s) and loiter altitude of 37,000 ft. also A= 3.194, (W/S)loiter = 13
E= 40 min= 2400 sec SFC (c) = 0.7/hr = 0.000194/sec Hence, e. Acceleration: W5/W4 = W5/W4 = 0.9901 f. Dash: W4/W3 = 0.9618
W6/W5 = =
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Where,
K=
490)
At M=1.1, 37,000ft and A= 3.194, (W/S)cruise = 74.36 So, Range (R) = 50 nmi = 303805 ft. At Mach= 1.4, SFC (c) = 1.06 /hr. = 0.0002944 /sec W6/W5 = 0.9908 g. Cruise Back: = 7.136
W7/W6 = = 10.36 Range (R) = 850 nmi = 5164685 ft. At Mach= 1.1, SFC (c) = 0.8 /hr. = 0.000222 /sec Hence, h. Loiter: W7/W6 = 0.9013 (Calculated in c)
W8/W7 = (Calculated in d) E= 15 min= 900 sec SFC (c) = 0.7/hr = 0.000194/sec Hence, W8/W7 = 0.9855
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Now, for each mission segment, the fuel burned is equal to:
The total mission fuel, Wf, using a 6% allowance for reserve fuel comes out to be:
Putting values in above formulae and solving, Wfuel =0.31202W0 7.1.3 Takeoff Weight Calculations: Using the above values of fuel weight and empty weight fraction, we can estimate the refined takeoff gross weight using the following equation.
Table 7.2 Crew (Pilot) Average Crew weight Payload (Dropped + Fixed) 1 150 lbs. 4000 lbs.
Using above formula and considering 48000 lbs. (MTOW) as a guess value and doing iteration we have calculated the Design Takeoff Gross Weight.
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Table 7.4 provides statistical equations for fuselage length. These are based solely upon takeoff gross weight, and give remarkably god correlations to most existing aircraft.
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Therefore,
The ratio between the fuselage length and its maximum diameter is the Fuselage fineness ratio. If the fuselage cross section is not a circle, an equivalent diameter is calculated from the cross-sectional area. Supersonic drag is typically minimized by a fineness ratio of about 14 but is very design dependent.
7.2.2 Wing: The actual wing size can now be determined simply as the takeoff gross weight divided by the takeoff wing loading. This would be the reference area of theoretical, trapezoidal wing, and includes the area extending into the aircraft centerline. = 808.55 ft2 Because of change in reference area, other geometric parameters for wing will also change, and they are calculated as follow: Wing span: b = (AR*S) 1/2 = 50.82 ft.
= 26.517 ft.
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) = 18.267 ft.
) = 9.882 ft.
The primary purpose of a tail is to counter the moments produced by the wing. The force due to tail lift is proportional to the tail area. Thus, the tail effectiveness is proportional to the tail area time the tail moment arm. This parameter has unit of volume, which leads to the tail volume coefficient method for initial estimation of tail size. Following equation gives the relation between Tail area (vertical and horizontal) with tail volume coefficient: SVT = cVT bw Sw / LVT SHT = cHT Cw Sw / LHT Typical values of tail volume coefficients are given in table 5. Table 7.5 Tail Volume Coefficient
Moreover for H-tail horizontal tail volume coefficient can be reduced by about 5%. Hence from Table 5, cVT = 0.07
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cHT = 0.38 Therefore, SVT = 88.462 ft2 SHT = 171.79 ft2 Summary of initial sizing is given in Table 7.6. Table 7.6 Summary (combined area of two vertical tails)
7.2.4 Control-Surface Sizing: The primary control surfaces are the ailerons, elevator and rudder. Final sizing of these surfaces is based upon dynamic analysis of control effectiveness, including structural bending and control systems effects. For initial design, historical guidelines are used. a. Ailerons: In, span ailerons typically extend from about 50% to 90% of the span and about 15% to 25% of wing chord. With 70% of span and 20% of chord. Span of Ailerons = 35.574 ft.
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The above span includes 55% of flaps and 45% of ailerons. Chord= 3.6534 ft. b. Elevators: Elevators typically extend to the tip of the tail or to about 90% of the tail span and about 25% to 50% of the tail chord. Span of Elevators = 20.432 ft. Chord = 3.0114 ft. c. Rudders: Rudders show same trend with tail span and chord as by elevators. Span of Rudders = 7.065 ft. Chord = 2.2313 ft.
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8. Configuration Layout
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Fig 9.1 Average 95th Percentile Pilot Moreover, dimensions for a typical cockpit sized to fit the 95th percentile pilot are shown in figure 9.2.
Fig 9.2 Typical Fighter Aircraft Cockpit Higher seatback angles entails a substantial penalty in outside vision for the pilot, but can improve his ability to withstand high-g-turns and also can reduce drag because of a reduction in the cockpit height. Seatback Angle = 300 Overnose angle is of critical importance especially during landing and during air-to-air combat. military fighters the typical value for the overnose angle is between 11 and 15. For
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Overnose Angle = 150 The single-piece, bubble canopy will provide 360 all-round visibility, with a 40 look-down angle over the side of the aircraft.
Fig 9.3 Details of weapons which can be carried are given below: Table 9.1 Weapon Name 1x GAU-8 Avenger 2x AIM-9 Sidewinder or AIM-7 Sparrow or AIM-120 AMRAAM 4x AGM-65 Maverick or AGM45 Shrike 8x Hydra 70 or CRV7 2x BL755 or Mark 82 Type 30 mm Gun Air-to-Air Missile Weight of single Weapon 619 lbs. 376 lbs. / 510 lbs. / 335 lbs.
Air-to-Ground Missile
Rocket Bomb
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10.
This section treats the integration and layout of the propulsion system into the overall vehicle design, not the calculation of installed propulsion performance.
Fig 10.1
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Fig 10.2 Engine Scaling Figure 10.2 illustrates the dimensions that must be scaled from the nominal engine. The scale factor SF is the ratio between the required thrust and the actual thrust of the nominal engine. Below are the parameters found for our aircrafts engine:
Required Thrust: W0 (T/W) = (47963.2027) (0.544) = 26091.98 lbf Actual Thrust = 23,800 lbf (Rolls-Royce Pegasus installed in Harrier GR-3) SF = 1.096 Following equations show how, length, diameter and weight vary with the scale for the typical jet engine.
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Table 10.1 Length actual Diameter actual Weight actual So using the above formulae: Table 10.2 Length Diameter Weight 11.843 ft. 4.188 ft. 4380.13 lbs. 11.4166 ft. 4 ft. 3960 lbs.
Fig 10.3 Any inlet must slow the air to about half the speed of sound before it reaches the engine. The final transition from supersonic to subsonic speed always occurs through a normal shock. An oblique shock, however, does not reduce the air speed all the way to subsonic. To have better pressure recovery it is desired to have number of oblique shockwaves before normal shock. However the ramp length will increase as the numbers of oblique shocks are increased. So we
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have to make compromise between number of shocks and ramp length. Keeping in mind maximum Mach i.e., 1.5, 2 shocks (external compression) is selected.
Fig 10.4
Fig 10.5
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Fig 10.6 Capture Area Sizing For the design Mach number of 1.1,
Now,
Capture Area = (mass flow) ( Where, And, mass flow = 26 (Front Face Diameter)2
Front Face Diameter = 80% of Maximum Diameter = 0.8 (4.188) = 3.3504 ft. mass flow = 26 (3.3504)2 = 291.855 Capture Area = (291.855) (3.60) = 1050.678 ft2
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supersonically. The channel diverter is selected for A-18. It provides the best performance and least weight in most cases. The inlet front face is located some distance away from the fuselage, with a splitter plate to ensure that the boundary-layer air does not get into the inlet.
Fig 10.7
Fig 10.8
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fuel loss and fire hazard. The fuel volume is calculated below: As If JP-4 type fuel is used then: = 6.4 lbs./gal Hence, Volume of fuel = 14964.52/6.4 = 2338.20625 gal W fuel = 14964.52 lbs.
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11.
Fig 11.1 With a tricycle landing gear, the c.g. is ahead of the main wheels so the aircraft is stable on the ground and can be landed at a fairly large crab angle (i.e., nose not aligned with the runway). Also, tricycle landing gear improves forward visibility on the ground. The layout of tricycle landing gear is shown in figure 11.2. The length of the landing gear must be set so that the tail doesnt hit the ground on landing. This is measured from the wheel in the static position assuming an aircraft angle of attack for landing which gives 90% of the maximum lift. The ranges are from about 10-15 deg for most types of aircraft.
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Assuming that main landing gear carry 90% of total weight. And as there are two main landing gears. So,
= 21583.44 lbs.
11.2.2 Nose Landing Gear: Generally nose tire can be assumed 60-100% the size of the main tires. Assuming 80% of size of main landing gear. Diameter = 25.9056 inches Width = 8.2864 inches Other parameters include:
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And the recommended tire pressure is given in Table 4 which is, Table 11.2 Recommended Tire Pressure
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Where
And,
= Shock Absorber efficiency L = Average total Load S = Stroke From Table 11.3, Table 11.3 Shock Absorber Efficiency
And
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L = (Wlanding) (Ngear) From Table 11.4 Table 11.4 Gear Load Factors
Ngear = 3.5 So, L = 134296.96 lbs Generally stoke approximately equals the vertical velocity at touch down:
Hence
Finally,
Where
and
Hence,
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Fig 11.4
Where
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lbs. Finally
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Aerodynamics
d = 6.223
b = 50.82
F = 1.3481
max = 490 Sexposed/Sref = 0.836 F(Sexposed/Sref) = 1.127 > 1 Hence let, F(Sexposed/Sref) = 0.98
M = 0.6 = 0.64 CLalpha = 2.998/ rad 12.1.2 Supersonic Lift-Curve Slope: The chart in figure 12.1 is the best approximate method available for the estimation of supersonic lift curve slope. The chart actually estimates the slope of the normal force i.e. the lift-curve slope in a direction
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perpendicular to the surface of wing. For low angles of attack, this is approximately equal to the liftcurve slope. The term divided by tangent of the leading edge sweep is calculated and found on horizontal axis of the chart. If this ratio is less than 1, which is our case, then left side of the chart must be used. Appropriate line is selected by calculating the wing aspect ratio times the tangent of the leading edge sweep and vertical axis value is read. This value is then divided by the tangent of leading edge sweep. At Mach 1.1, = 1.118 Also L.E.= 490
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Important parameters required are, Leading edge sharpness parameter (y) = 1.025 Taper ratio () = 0.2 Leading edge sweep (L.E. ) = 490
Fig 12.3 Airfoil Leading Edge Sharpness Parameter For calculating (CLmax)base and CLmax following values are estimated
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Fig 12.6 CLmax = 0.05 Hence maximum lift coefficient is, Similarly for angle of attack, CLmax = 0.87
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(From Geometry)
Fig 12.8 Flapped Wing Area Slotted flaps are selected for A-18 Ababeel. Table 12.1
CLmax = 0.4458 And the total maximum lift coefficient with high-lift device is CLmax = 0.87+0.4458 CLmax = 1.3258
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12.4.1 Subsonic Parasite (Zero-Lift) Drag: Equivalent Skin-Method: In this method zero lift drag is approximated using skin friction drag.
Table 12.2
Swet/Sref = 1364.07/808.55 = 1.68705 Hence, Component buildup Method: The component buildup method estimates the subsonic parasite drag of each component of the aircraft using a calculated flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient (Cf) and a component form factor (FF) that estimates the pressure drag due to viscous separation. Then the interference effects on the component drag are estimated as a factor Q and the total component drag is determined as the product of the wetted area, Cf, FF, Q. and the total subsonic parasite-drag buildup is shown in following equation, where subscript c indicates that those values are different for each component. CD0 = 0.006
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Flat-Plate Skin Friction Coefficient: The flat-plate skin friction coefficient Cf depends upon the Reynolds number, Mach number and skin roughness. The most important factor affecting the skin friction drag is the extent to which the aircraft has the laminar flow over its surface, thats why there are following two formulas for different phases: Laminar:
Turbulent:
Component Form Factors: Form Factor for different components is given by,
Miscellaneous Drag: Following graphs and trends were used to calculate miscellaneous drag.
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Fig 12.10 External Stores (Fuel Tanks) Drag A program was written in EXCEL to calculate subsonic Zero-Lift Drag
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Fig 12.11 Contribution of different components in subsonic drag 12.4.2 Supersonic Parasite (Zero-Lift) Drag: Component buildup method is used with an addition of wave drag, which is given by,
Similarly an EXCEL program was written for calculating supersonic zero-lift drag.
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13.
13.1 Thrust Variation with Altitude:
Propulsion
For turbofan engine, thrust decreases with increasing altitude. Following equation is used for plotting thrust vs. altitude.
0 and T0 refers to density and thrust at sea level respectively. T0 = 26091.98 lbf. And assuming m = 0.95.
For various Mach numbers, this equation gives following graph between reference & available
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Fig 13.2 Reducing inlet pressure recovery has a greater-than-proportional effect upon the engine thrust.
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14.
An aircraft faces various structural loads during its flight which considerably affects the aircrafts flight. When one thinks of aircraft loads, the air loads due to high-g maneuvering come immediately to mind, while important, maneuvering loads are only a part of total load that must be withstood by the aircraft structure. Some of the important aircraft structural loads are described and analyzed below:
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Fig 14.2 The loads experienced when the aircraft encounters a strong gust can exceed the maneuver loads in some cases. The V-n diagram for gust loads is given below.
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15.
Weights
The detail of all the weights of different components was computed using RDS. In total the gross takeoff weight is 47963.2027 lbs. The output window of RDS is shown below.
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16.
16.1 Thrust Required:
Performance Analysis
If an aircraft is flying at certain altitude with certain velocity then to maintain these steady fight conditions enough thrust must be generated to overcome the drag- this is the thrust required to maintain these conditions. The condition for minimum thrust required is also the condition for maximum L/D.
Fig 16.1 Thrust Required and Thrust Available The point where thrust required and thrust available curves meets is the point of maximum velocity which is about 1450 ft./sec (Mach 1.5).
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Fig 16.3 Power Required and Power Available Again the intersecting point gives the maximum velocity.
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ROC at Mach 1.1 (1064.5 ft./sec) is about 240 ft./sec (14,400 ft./min) The hodograph is a plot between aircrafts vertical velocity and horizontal velocity. It is shown below.
Fig 16.5
Fig 16.6 Now the maximum ROC for each was plotted against altitude. And later the plot was extrapolated to ROC = 0 ft/min.
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Fig 16.7 ROC vs. Altitude From above graph ROC was estimated as 50952.4818 ft.
16.6 Range:
It is the total distance (measure with respect to ground) traversed by an airplane on one load of fuel. Table 16.2
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16.7 Endurance:
It is the amount of time that an airplane can stay in the air on one load of fuel. Table 16.3
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Consider an airplane flying at some altitude h and with some velocity V then its energy height is:
Using this equation the graph of constant He lines at different altitudes can be drawn as follows:
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Fig 16.8 16.9.2 Specific Excess Power: It is the rate of change in energy height or excess power per unit weight. Ps = V (T-D)/W
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Performance Parameter ROC Absolute Ceiling Range Takeoff Distance Landing Distance
Mission Requirement 15,000 ft./min 50,000 ft. 1800 nmi 1200 ft. 1800 ft.
Designed Parameter 14,400 ft./min 50,952.4818 ft. 1807 nmi 1284.79 ft. 1431.06 ft.
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17.
During early conceptual design, the requirements for good stability, control and handling qualities are addressed through the use of tail volume coefficients and through the location of aircraft center of gravity (c.g) at some percent of the wing mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). In larger aircraft companies, the aircraft is then analyzed by the control experts, probably using six degree of freedom (DOF) aircraft dynamics. Similar control and stability analysis is done in DATCOM software to get stability derivatives.
Fig 17.1 a
Fig 17.1 b
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Fig 17.1c
Fig 17.1d
Fig 17.1e
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Fig 17.1 e
Fig 17.2
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Fig 17.3
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And from these calculations I have calculated the following transfer functions:
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18.
Cost Analysis
When the aircraft manufacturers submit their proposals for new aircraft, the customer faces a problem. All of the proposed aircraft will meet the design requirements. Thats why customer must use some criteria other than aircraft performance to select the best proposal. Aircraft cost estimation occupies the fuzzy gray area between science, art and politics. Cost estimation is largely statistical and in final analysis we predict the cost of a new aircraft based on the actual costs of prior aircraft. Ive used RDS software for cost analysis of this aircraft and after entering the inputs for the production of 100 aircrafts I have got the following results:
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References
Raymer, Daniel P., Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Fourth Edition Lang, James D., Aircraft Performance, Stability and Control, Vol. I Blakelock, John H., Automatic Control of Aircraft and Missiles Anderson, John D., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill 2007 Anderson, John D., Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-Hill 2007 Abbott, Theory of Wing Sections Users Manual, THE USAF STABILITY AND CONTROL DATCOM Charles D. Harris ,NASA Supercritical Airfoils (A matrix of family-Related Airfoils) Standard Aircraft Characteristics Navy Model AV-8B Harrier, October 1986 Denis Howe, Aircraft Conceptual Design Synthesis, First Edition http://www.flightsimaviation.com http://library.propdesigner.co.uk www.wikipedia.org/
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Appendix A
(DATCOM+ Data)
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Appendix B
(Aerodynamic Sheets)
At 37,000 ft (Subsonic) 0.01046 CD0 K 0.12473 At 37,000 ft (Supersonic) 0.05441 CD0 K 0.21327
CL
CD CD 37,000 37,000 ft ft(Subsonic) (Supersonic) 0.011710206 0.056547101 0.015452106 0.062945201 0.021688606 0.073608701 0.030419706 0.088537601 0.041645406 0.107731901 0.055365706 0.131191601 0.071580606 0.158916701 0.090290106 0.190907201 0.111494206 0.227163101 0.135192906 0.267684401
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Appendix C
(V-n Diagram Sheets)
At 37,000 ft T 390 (density) Mmax Vmax W/S CLmax (Unflapped) nmax (Positive) V* (Corner Velocity) nmax (Negative) V* - negative n slugs/ 0.000678 ft3 1.5 1451.932 ft/sec 59.32 0.87 8 1268.487 ft/sec -3.5 839.0254
Velocity 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 839 900 1000 1100 1200 1268 1300 1400 1450
nmax (Positive) 0 0.049718476 0.198873904 0.447466285 0.795495617 1.242961902 1.789865138 2.436205327 3.181982468 3.499787939 4.027196561 4.971847606 6.015935604 7.159460553 7.993855906 7.993855906 7.993855906 7.993855906
nmax (Negative) 0 -0.049718476 -0.198873904 -0.447466285 -0.795495617 -1.242961902 -1.789865138 -2.436205327 -3.181982468 -3.499787939 -3.499787939 -3.499787939 -3.499787939 -3.499787939 -3.499787939 -3.499787939 -3.499787939 -3.499787939
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