Manufacturing

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.
CONTENTS
TYPES OF PLASTICS PLASTIC PROCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATION
WALL THICKNESS HOLES RIBS USE OF RIBS BOSS DESIGN COUNTER BORE/SINK INSERTS UNIFORM WALLS NEED FOR UNIFORM WALLS RADIUS VOIDS AND SHRINKAGE
Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,
WARPAGE
REASON FOR DRAFT

INJECTION MOULDING MOULD LAYOUT MOULDING MACHINE MACHINE PARAMETER MOULDING DEFECT RUNNER DESIGN GATE DESIGN
SHEET METAL
TYPES OF OPERATION
BENDING
DESIGN CONSIDERATION HOLES
VARIETY OF PLASTICS & PLASTIC PROCESS

TWO BASIC TYPES OF PLASTICS THERMOSET : HEAT HARDENING/ UNDERGOES CHEMICAL CHANGES
THERMOPLASTIC : HEAT SOFTENING/ UNDERGOES PHYSICAL CHANGES VARIETY OF PLASTIC PROCESS
Extrusion Thermal Forming
Foaming
Lamination Expansion Molding
Transfer Molding Blow Molding Injection Molding Compression Molding
Design Considerations for Injection Molding Making the mold for injection molding is similar to making a mold for casting. The major concern is ease of separation; there should be no material preventing the two halves of the mold from splitting. The major restrictions against separation are undercuts and overhangs. Though possible to make, these complications should be avoided if possible. Creating and using a mold with a movable part for undercuts and overhangs is expensive and time-consuming. Also, all corners should be rounded to improve the quality of the part. Below are examples of undercuts and overhangs:
Basic Part. Easy to make.
Part with undercuts. Difficult to make: Requires moving part on mold.
Part with overhangs. Very difficult to make: Avoid if possible.
While it is possible to make a mold with three or more pieces that assemble to create the shape of the part, these molds are MUCH more expensive than the standard two part mold. Wall Thickness: Maintain uniform wall thickness insofar as possible, and if changes in wall thickness are unavoidable, make them gradual rather than abrupt.
Holes: Holes are feasible in injection molded parts. However, they are a complicating factor in mold construction and in part quality.
The minimum spacing between two holes or between a hole and sidewall should be one diameter.
Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. ltd.,
Holes should be located three diameter or more from the edge of the part to avoid excessive stress. Blind holes should not be more than two diameters deep.
RIBS:
The size of the rib should be equal to the size of the part wall . avoid the larger wall thickness of the rib so that stress induced on the walls will be reduced . Instead of having larger thickness wall we can have 2 or more ribs of uniform wall thickness.
Uniform wall thickness rib. (Correct one)
Not this (Wrong one)
The use of ribs: Ribs increase the bending stiffness of a part. Without ribs, the thickness has to be increased to increase the bending stiffness. Adding ribs increases the moment of inertia, which increases the bending stiffness. Bending stiffness = E (Young's Modulus) x I (Moment of Inertia) The rib thickness should be less than the wall thickness-to keep sinking to a minimum. The thickness ranges from 40 to 60 % of the material thickness. In addition, the rib should be attached to the base with generous radius at the corners.
At rib intersections, the resulting thickness will be more than the thickness of each individual rib. Coring or some other means of removing material should be used to thin down the walls to avoid excessive sinking on the opposite side.
The height of the rib should be limited to less than 3 x thickness. It is better to have multiple ribs to increase the bending stiffness than one high rib.
The rib orientation is based on providing maximum bending stiffness. Depending on orientation of the bending load, with respect to the part geometry, ribs oriented one way increase stiffness. If oriented the wrong way there is no increase in stiffness.
Draft angles for ribs should be minimum of 0.25 to 0.5 degree of draft per side. If the surface is textured, additional 1.0 degree draft per 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture should be provided. Boss Design: Bosses are used for the purpose of registration of mating parts or for attaching fasteners such as screws or accepting threaded inserts (molded-in, press-fitted, ultrasonically or thermally inserted). The wall thickness should be less than 60 % of nominal wall to minimize sinking. However, if the boss is not in a visible area, then the wall thickness can be increased to allow for increased stresses imposed by self-tapping screws. The base radius should be a minimum of 0.25 x thickness
The boss can be strengthened by gussets at the base, and by attaching it to nearby walls with connecting ribs. Hoop stresses are imposed on the boss walls by press fitting or otherwise inserting inserts. The maximum insertion (or withdrawal) force Fmax and the maximum hoop stress, occurring at the inner diameter of the boss, smax is given by
Failures of a boss are usually attributable to: High hoop stresses caused because of too much interference of the internal diameter with the insert (or screw). Knit lines -these are cold lines of flow meeting at the boss from opposite sides, causing weak bonds. These can split easily when stress is applied.Knit lines should be relocated away from the boss, if possible. If not possible, then a supporting gusset should be added near the knit line.
Counter Bore/Sink :
Counter-sinking is often done to accommodate heads of flat head screws. However as can be seen from the figure, there is a sideways component of the thrust which could split the countersink due to the generated hoop stresses Counter-boring is done to accommodate pan-head, fillister-head or round-head screws or other screws with flat-bottomed undersides.
Counter-bored screws exert only force in the axial direction, thus operate mostly under compression, with no sideward component to the applied force vector. Such design is inherently more robust than counter-sinking. Inserts: Inserts are used in plastic parts, to allow the use of fasteners such as machine screws. The advantage of this is that since these inserts are made out of metal, they are robust. Further, machine threads also allow great many cycles of assembly and disassembly Uniform Walls:
Parts should be designed with a minimum wall thickness consistent with part function and mold filling considerations. The thinner the wall the faster the part cools, and the cycle times are short, resulting in the lowest possible part costs. Also, thinner parts weight less, which results in smaller amounts of the plastic used per part, which also results in lower part costs. The wall thickness of an injection-molded part generally range from 2 mm to 4 mm (0.080 inch to 0.160 inch). Thin wall injection molding can produce walls as thin as 0.5 mm (0.020 inch).
The need for uniform walls:

Thick sections cool slower than thin sections. The thin section first solidifies, and the thick section is still not fully solidified. As the thick section cools, it shrinks and the material for the shrinkage comes only from the unsolidified areas, which are connected, to the already solidified thin section. This builds stresses near the boundary of the thin section to thick section. Since the thin section does not yield because it is solid, the thick section (which is still liquid) must yield. Often this leads to warping or twisting. If this is severe enough, the part could even crack.
Uniform wall thickness reduce/eliminate this problem. Uniform walled parts are easier to fill in the mold cavity, since the molten plastic does not face varying restrictions as it fills. What if you cannot have uniform walls? (due to design limitations) ? When uniform walls are not possible, then the change in Section should be as gradual as possible.
Coring can help in making the wall sections uniform, and eliminate the problems associated with non-uniform walls.
Building supporting features such as gussets can reduce warping problems.
Radius : Sharp corners greatly increase the stress concentration. This high amount of stress concentration can often lead to failure of plastic parts. Sharp corners can come about in non-obvious places. Examples of this are a boss attached to a surface, or a strengthening rib. These corners need to be radiuses just like all other corners. The stress concentration factor varies with radius, for a given thickness.
As can be seen from the previous slide, the stress concentration factor is quite high for R/T values less than 0.5. For values of R/T over 0.5 the stress concentration factor gets lower. The stress concentration factor is a multiplier factor, it increases the stress. Actual Stress = Stress Concentration Factor K x Stress Calculated This is why it is recommended that inside radiuses be a minimum of 1 x thickness. In addition to reducing stresses, fillet radiuses provide streamlined flow paths for the molten plastic resulting in easier fills. Typically, at corners, the inside radius is 0.5 x material thickness and the outside radius is 1.5 x material thickness. A bigger radius should be used if part design will allow it.
Voids and Shrinkage: Shrinkage is caused by intersecting walls of non-uniform wall thickness. Examples of these are ribs, bosses, and other projections of the nominal wall. If these projections have greater wall thickness, they will solidify slower. The region where they are attached to the nominal wall will shrink along with the projection, resulting in a sink in the nominal wall. Shrink can be minimized by maintaining rib thickness to 50 to 60% of the walls they are attached to. Bosses located at corners can result in very thick walls causing sinks.Bosses can be isolated using the techniques illustrated.
Warpage: Thick sections cool slower than thin sections. The thin section first solidifies, and the thick section is still not fully solidified. As the thick section cools, it shrinks and the material for the shrinkage comes only from the unsolidified areas, which are connected, to the already solidified thin section. This builds stresses near the boundary of the thin section to thick section. Since the thin section does not yield because it is solid, the thick section (which is still liquid) must yield. Often this leads to warping or twisting. If this is severe enough, the part could even crack.
Other causes:
Warping can also be caused due to non-uniform mold temperatures or cooling rates.
Non-uniform packing or pressure in the mold. Alignment of polymer molecules and fiber reinforcing strands during the mold fill results in preferential properties in the part. Molding process conditions--too high an injection pressure or temperature or improper temperature and cooling of the mold cavity. Generally, it is best to follow the resin manufacturer's guidelines on process conditions and only vary conditions within the limits of the guidelines. It is not good practice to go beyond the pressure and temperature recommendations to compensate for other defects in the mold. If runners need to be sized differently to allow for a proper fill, or gate sizes that need to be changed, then those changes need to happen. Otherwise the finished parts will have too much built in stresses, could crack in service or warp leading to more severe problems such as customer returns or field service issues.
The reason for draft: Drafts (or taper) in a mold, facilitates part removal from the mold. The amount of draft angle depends on the depth of the part in the mold, and its required end use function. The draft is in the offset angle in a direction parallel to the mold opening and closing.
It is best to allow for as much draft as possible for easy release from the mold. As a nominal recommendation, it is best to allow 1 to 2 degrees of draft, with an additional 1.5 min. per 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture. See below. The mold parting line can be relocated to split the draft in order to minimize it. If no draft is acceptable due to design considerations, then a side-action mold (cam-actuated) may be required at a greater expense in tooling. The reason for texture: Textures and Lettering can be molded on the surfaces, as an aesthetic aid or for incorporating identifying information, either for end users or factory. Texturing also helps hide surface defects such as knit lines, and other surface imperfections. The depth of texture or letters is somewhat limited, and extra draft needs to be provided to allow for mold withdrawal without marring the surface. Draft for texturing is somewhat dependant on the mold design and the specific mold texture. Guidelines are readily available from the mold texture suppliers or mold builders.
As a general guideline, 1.5 min. per 0.025mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture needs to be allowed for in addition to the normal draft. Usually for general office equipment such as lap-top computers a texture depth of 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) is used and the min. draft recommended is 1.5 . More may be needed for heavier textures surfaces such as leather texture (with a depth of 0.125 mm/0.005 inch) that requires a min. draft of 7.5.
SHEETMETAL PART DESIGN

Process details :
Types of sheet metal operations Shearing Operations Non Shearing Operations Press Working principles
Guidelines :
Part design considerations.
Heat treatment requirements.
Bending
Bending is a process by which metal can be deformed by plastically deforming the material and changing its shape. The material is stressed beyond the yield strength but below the ultimate tensile strength. The surface area of the material does not change much. Bending usually refers to deformation about one axis. Bending is a flexible process by which many different shapes can be produced. Standard die sets are used to produce a wide variety of shapes. The material is placed on the die, and positioned in place with stops and/or gages. It is held in place with hold-downs. The upper part of the press, the ram with the appropriately shaped punch descends and forms the v-shaped bend. Bending is done using Press Brakes. Press Brakes normally have a capacity of 20 to 200 tons to accommodate stock from 1m to 4.5m (3 feet to 15 feet). Larger and smaller presses are used for specialized applications. Programmable back gages, and multiple die sets available currently can make for a very economical process.
Air Bending is done with the punch touching the work piece and the work piece, not bottoming in the lower cavity. This is called air bending. As the punch is released, the work piece ends up with less bend than that on the punch (greater included angle). This is called spring-back. The amount of spring back depends on the material, thickness, grain and temper. The spring back usually ranges from 5 to 10 degrees. Usually the same angle is used in both the punch and the die to minimize setup time. The inner radius of the bend is the same as the radius on the punch.
Bottoming or Coining is the bending process where the punch and the work piece bottom on the die. This makes for a controlled angle with very little spring back. The tonnage required on this type of press is more than in air bending. The inner radius of the work piece should be a minimum of 1 material thickness in the case of bottoming; and up to 0.75 material thickness, in the case of coining.
Design Considerations:
The bend radius should be kept the same for all radiuses in the part to minimize set up changes. Bend radius guidelines are as follows: For most materials, the minimum inner radius should be at least 1 material thickness.
As a general rule, bending perpendicular to rolling direction is easier than rolling parallel to the rolling direction. Bending parallel to the rolling direction can often lead to fracture in hard materials. Thus bending parallel to rolling direction is not recommended for cold rolled steel > Rb 70. And no bending is acceptable for cold rolled steel > Rb 85. Hot rolled steel can be bent parallel to the rolling direction. The minimum flange width should be at least 4 times the stock thickness plus the bending radius. Violating this rule could cause distortions in the part or damage to tooling or operator due to slippage.
Slots or holes too close to the bend can cause distortion of these holes. Holes or slots should be located a minimum of 3 stock thickness plus the bend radius. If it is necessary to have holes closer, then the hole or slot should de extended beyond the bend line.
Dimensioning of the part should take into account the stack up of dimensions that can happen and mounting holes that can be made oblong should be. Parts should be inspected in a restrained position, so that the natural flexure of the parts does not affect measurements. Similarly inside dimensions in an inside bend should be measured close to the bend.
Part Design Considerations

Slots or tabs widths should be greater than 1.5 X stock thickness. The length can be a maximum of 5 times slot/tab width. These rules can be violated at an increased tooling cost-- width as low as 1 X thickness and length as high as 7 X thickness can be achieved.
Rules for Holes:

Minimum hole (and short slot) to bend distance should be 2.5 X the stock thickness + bend radius. For long slots, the distance should be 4 X the stock thickness + bend radius.
Bend relief notches should be provided = 2 X stock thickness in width (minimum 1.5mm / 0.060 in) and radius + stock thickness in length.
Generally, bending perpendicular to rolling direction is easier than rolling parallel to the rolling direction. Bending parallel to the rolling direction can often lead to fracture in hard materials. Thus bending parallel to rolling direction is not recommended for cold rolled steel > Rb 70. And no bending is acceptable for cold rolled steel > Rb 85. Hot rolled steel can be bent parallel to the rolling direction.
METAL CASTING PART DESIGN
METAL CASTING The Design of gating and risering, or rigging systems as they are sometimes referred to, has been a very important task in the manufacture of cast components.
METAL CASTING
Design Aspects in Casting Part Orientation Rules Parting plane Rules Sprue Rules Riser Rules Gate Rules Runner Rules
GATE SPRUE PARTING PLANE
RUNNER
RISER
Part Orientation Rules

Orient the part so that the large part of the casting is relatively low. Minimize the height of the casting. Place Open spaces down Place the casting such that top risers can be placed on high points on the casting for the heavy sections.
Parting Plane Rules The Plane that separates the cope(top) and the drag (bottom) parts of the mold is called the parting plane.
LIGHT ALLOY CASTING
Place the parting plane as low as possible relative to the casting.
Place the parting place at the cross section of the largest area of the Casting.
For STEEL CASTING Placing the parting plane at about mid-height of the casting has the advantage of filling the bottom with colder metal (due to the initial temperature of the sand) and promote sequential solidification. However, high drops of the metal should be avoided.
For DUCTILE IRON CASTINGS Minimize the need for cores. Place heavy sections in the drag. Try to put all or most of the casting in the cope for quiet mold filling. The disadvantage of this placement is that the yield will be small for castings that require a short filling time.
SPRUE RULES The sprue or downsprue is the part of the rigging into which the molten metal is poured
For ALLOY
The sprue should be sized to limit the flow rate of molten metal. If the sprue is large, the flow rate of the molten metal will be high. High metal flow rates cause dross problems. Blind-ends on the runners help to trap unwanted dross. The size of the sprue fixes the flow rate. In other words, the amount of molten metal that can be fed in to the mold cavity in a given time period is limited by the size of the sprue. Height of the sprue is determined by the casting and the top riser height. The sprue should be located centrally on the runner, with an equal number of gates on each side.
For STEEL 1-2 (2.54-5.1 cm) sprue wells are used. Sprue wells are built with a different material that the one used in the mold for higher resistance to erosion: e.g., clay brick, sand with high proportion silica flour, cement-bounded alumina.
For DUCTILE IRON

Locate the sprue symmetrically. Sprue should not act as choke.
Avoid use of parallel sprues
RISER RULES
Risers are reservoirs of molten metal that are used to feed the casting during solidification.
For ALLOY Riser are located near thick sections of the casting. For example, hubs are relatively thick parts of casting and are potentially good locations for the risers. If the top of the riser is not open to atmospheric pressure, the height:diameter ratio of 1:1 to 3:1 should be maintained for a cylindrical riser. External risers are preferred to internal ones because of easy removal and cleanup after production. Ideally, the cross section of the riser is slightly larger than the section it feeds.
For STEEL For small shallow steel castings, the gating system can be eliminated and the mold can be filled through a riser if the casting is filled using a ladle. In the case of filling from a large bottom-poured ladle, this cannot be done because of the high velocity of the metal stream. Vents are used to allow the escape of the gasses during the filling of the mold. Rectangular vents are preferred to round ones. Blind risers should not be located below an open riser with a heavy section connecting them. For DUCTILE IRON Risering should be designed on e of three ways, conventionally, as in steel castings, riserless with multiple gates, for casting not poured in green sand; or with a single riser and multiple gates. Standard riser can be used to expedite the volume and modulus calculations. Use blind risers.
GATE RULES
Gates are the passages between the runners and the part. For ALLOY
Gate in to thick regions.

Use standard sizes and shapes for the gates. Rectangular gates are most widely used. Fillets between the gates and the casting are desirable. Maximum gate thickness should be - 3/8 in ( 0.64 0.95 cm) For STEEL Round fates are usually preferred to square ones of the same crosssectional area, since round gates cause less friction and result in larger filling rates. The number of gates should be maximized to prevent hot spots.
If single gate is used to fill the mold, the gate should flare toward the casting.
For DUCTILE IRON If multiple, identical castings are cast in the same mold, gate all of them in the same manner
Minimum gate length should be five times the gate thickness.

For gate runner systems, the junction between a gate and a runner should be such that the bottom surface of the gate should be placed on the same plane as the bottom surface of the runner For gate- runner systems, gate should come off the runner at a right angle.
RUNNER RULES
Runners are the passages that carry the molten metal from the sprue well to the gates through which metal enters the mold cavity
For ALLOY
Standard sizes and shapes are used for runners. Rectangular cross sections are preferred in sand castings. The runner are is three to ten times the cross-sectional area of the sprue exit Runner should maintain a minimum distance from the part. For STEEL A 1:4:4 gating ratio is commonly used to size the runners. The depth of the runner may be changed so that it is shallow at the sprue and progressively deeper toward the end.
Runner extensions are used to trap dross.
For DUCTILE IRON Avoid use of curved runners. If curved runners are necessary, locate gates as far from the curved sections as possible
Avoid use of stepped runners.
Common rules taking care of : Geometric features of the casting, such as casting boundaries, location of cores, thick regions and flow paths, are of primary importance for the design of the appropriate gating systems.
End of Presentation

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Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.

REASON FOR DRAFT

VARIETY OF PLASTICS & PLASTIC PROCESS

THERMOPLASTIC : HEAT SOFTENING/ UNDERGOES PHYSICAL CHANGES VARIETY OF PLASTIC PROCESS

Extrusion Thermal Forming

Transfer Molding Blow Molding Injection Molding Compression Molding

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Basic Part. Easy to make.

Part with undercuts. Difficult to make: Requires moving part on mold.

Part with overhangs. Very difficult to make: Avoid if possible.

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Not this (Wrong one)

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

The need for uniform walls:

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Building supporting features such as gussets can reduce warping problems.

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

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Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

SHEETMETAL PART DESIGN

Heat treatment requirements.

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Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

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Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

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Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,

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Part Design Considerations

Copyright 1996-03 Atlantis-Lab Pvt. Ltd.,