Stati sti c

s
Statistik, first introduced by Gottfried Achenwall
(1749), originally designated the analysis of data
about the state, signifying the "science of state“ .
 Topics
• Introduction to Statistics
• History and Application
• Two Kinds of Data
• Statistical Presentations
• Ranking, Percentile, and Percentile Rank
• Basic Counting Principle,
Permutation and Combination
• Probability
• Inferential Statistics
 Introduction to Statistics
• Statistics can be found in:
– Business
– Politics
– Science and Technology
– Education
– Sports
– Many other subjects
• Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the
collection, organization, and analysis of numerical data with
such problems as experiment design and decision making.
• It has two branches, namely, descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics
 History and Application
• Before 3000 BC, the Babylonians used small clay tablets to
record tablations of agricultural yields and of commodities
bartered or sold.
• Egyptians analyzed the populations and material wealth of
their country before beginning to build the pyramids in the
31st century BC.
• Biblical books of Numbers and 1st Chronicles are primarily
statistical works.
• The ancient Greeks held censuses to be used as bases for
taxation as early as 594 BC.
• At present, statistics is a reliable means of describing
acurately the values of ec onomic, political, social,
psychological, biological, and physical data and serves as a
tool to correlate and analyze such data.
 Two Kinds of Data
• Population Data
– The term population refers to all measurements or
observations of interest.
– This might be a population of people in a country, of
crystal grains in a rock, or of goods manufactured by
a particular factory during a given period.
• Sample Data
– A sample is simply a part of the population.
– For practical reasons, rather than compiling data
about an entire population, one usually instead
studies a chosen subset of the population.
 Statistical Presentations
• Two methods of describing collection of
Data:
– Organizing Data is summarizing raw data in a
systematic manner to be come meaningful
and useful.
– Frequency Distributions is a table which
divides the data into various classes or
categories.
 this can be done through construction of table or graphical
representations
 Statistical Presentations
• There are conventional rules in constructing table
for frequency distribution, one is:
– Scan the raw data for the highest H and the lowest L
values.
– Calculate the range R of the values; R = H – L
– Split the range into 5 to 15 classes, each covering the
same amount (the class interval).
Class size or width of class interval = R/number of
classes
– With all the data values, scan the raw data, item by item,
placing a tally mark next to a value each time it occurs
(every 5th tally mark crosses through a group of four)
– Count the number of the tally marks for each value. This
is its frequency, i.e., how many times it occurs.
 Statistical Presentations
• Example for frequency distribution:
– Construct a frequency distribution table for 30 grades
received on an examination of 30 students. The
grades are:
30, 35, 43, 52, 61, 65, 65, 65, 68, 70, 72, 72, 73, 75,
75, 76, 77, 78, 78, 80, 83, 85, 88, 88, 90, 91, 96, 97,
100, 100.

• Cumulative Frequency Distribution is adding the

frequency starting from the lowest class interval
up to the frequency of the highest class interval.
 Statistical Presentations
• Graphical representations of frequency
distributions can be a histogram,
frequency polygon, and frequency curve
In a cumulative-frequency graph,
such as Fig. 1, the grades are
marked on the horizontal axis and
double marked on the vertical
axis with the cumulative number
of the grades on the left and the
corresponding percentage of the
total number on the right.
 Statistical Presentations
• Histogram is a series of rectangles with
bases equal to the interval ranges and areas
proportional to the frequencies.
– Analyze the grades received by 10 sections of
30 pupils each on four examinations, a total of
1200 grades.
 Statistical Presentations
• Frequency Polygon is a line graph of
a frequency distribution. It is easily
obtained from a histogram by joining
the midpoints of the bars with line
segments to form a polygon.
The polygon in Fig. 3 is
drawn by connecting
with straight lines the
interval midpoints of a
cumulative frequency
histogram.
 Statistical Presentations
• Description of the form of a frequency:
– skewness, which is its departure from symmetry
and degree of its peakedness.
 negatively skewed, which is nonsymmetrical with longer tail of
the frequency curve on the left, symmetrical
 positively skewed, which is nonsymmetrical with the loner tail of
the frequency curve on the right.
 Statistical Presentations
• Another description of the form of a
frequency:
– Kurtosis is the extent to which a frequency
distribution is concentrated about the mean, a
frequency curve can be.
 platykurtic, which is flat with number of observed values
distributed relatively evenly across the classes,
 mesokurtic, which is neither flat nor peaked with respect to the
general appearance of the frequency curve,
 leptokurtic, which is peaked with a large number of observed
values concentrated within a narrow range of the possible
values of the variable being measured.
 Ranking, Percentile and Percentile
Rank
• Ranking
– Ranks can have non-integer values for tied data
values. When there is an even number of the same
data value, the statistical rank ends in ½
• Percentile is the value of a variable below a
certain percent of observations fall.
– Quartile is the 25th of percentile
– Median is the 50th of percentile
– Application: Physicians often use infant and children’s
height and weight percentile as a guage of relative
health
 Ranking, Percentile and Percentile
Rank
• Percentile Rank
– Percentiles are most often used for determining the
relative standing of an individual in population or the
rank position of the individual.
– Percentile ranks are an easy way to convey an
individual’s standing at graduation relative to other
graduates.
– Example: If Jason graduated 25th out of a class of
150 students, then 125 students were ranked below
Jason. Jason’s rank would be 125/150, which is equal
to 83rd percentile.
Percentile rank = (number of scores below x) . 100
n
 Ranking, Percentile and Percentile
Rank
• Sample Problem
– The math test scores were: 50 65 70 72 72 78
80 82 84 84 85 86 88 88 90 94 96 98 98 99.
Find the percentile rank for a score of 84 on
this test.
 Basic Counting Principle,
Permutations, Combinations
• Basic Counting Principle
– Fundamental principle of counting is often
referred to as the multiplication rule
– Theorem 1 (multiplication rule)
 If an operation can be performed in “n1” ways, and if for each
of these a second operation can be performed in “n2” ways,
then the two operations can be performed together in “n1 n2”
ways
 Example:
How many sample points are in the sample space when a
pair of dice is thrown once?
 Basic Counting Principle,
Permutations, Combinations
• Basic Counting Principle
– Theorem II (generalized multiplication rule)
 If an operation can be performed in “n1” ways, and if for each
of these a second operation can be performed in “n2” ways, if
for each of the first two a third operation can be performed in
“n3” ways, and so on, then the sequence of k operations can
be performed in n1 + n2 + ... + nk ways
 Example:
How many lunches are possible consisting of soup, a
sandawich, dessert, and a drink if one can select from 4
soups, 3 kinds of sandwiches, 5 desserts, and 4 drinks?
 Basic Counting Principle,
Permutations, Combinations
• Permutation
– an arrangement of all part of a set of objects.
– Any ordered arrangement of agiven set of
objects.
– Example: Possible permutations of letters a b
and c are abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba
– Represent the product by the symbol of n!
read as “n factorial” where n distinct objects
can be arranged in n(n-1) (n-2) ... (3) (2) (1)
ways.