CH 13 Electronics

Chapter 13 Op-Amp Circuits
Objectives
Analyze the operation of several basic comparator circuits
Analyze the operation of several types of summing amplifiers Analyze the operation of integrators and differentiators Troubleshoot basic op-amp circuits
Introduction
Op-amps are used in many different applications. We discuss the operation of three fundamental applications. Keep in mind that the basic operation and characteristics of the op-amps do not changethe only thing that changes is how we use them.
Comparators - Zero-level Detection

Just as the name implies, when an op-amp is used as a comparator it is comparing one signal to another. In this particular example of a zero-level detector the op-amp is in open-loop configuration. The incoming signal drives the op-amp into saturation, producing a square-wave output. Remember that the op-amp is driven into saturation easily when in open-loop configuration.
Comparators - Nonzero-level Detection

With nonzero-level detection the voltage divider or zener diode sets the reference voltage at which the op-amp turns goes to the maximum voltage level.
Figure 133
Comparators - Nonzero-level Detection
Thomas L. Floyd
Electronic Devices, 7e
Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
Figure 134
Thomas L. Floyd
Comparators
Remember that the comparator is configured in open-loop, making the gain very high. This is open-loop configuration. This makes the comparator very susceptible to unwanted signals (noise) that could cause the output to arbitrarily switch states.
Comparators
The effects of the noise can be reduced with feedback for hysteresis. This sets the trigger upper and lower trigger points, set by the voltage divider, such that it is unaffected by the minor variations caused by noise. This type of opamp configuration is sometimes called a Schmitt trigger.
Figure 138 Operation of a comparator with hysteresis.
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 139
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1310
Comparator with output bounding.
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1311 comparator.
Operation of a bounded
Thomas L. Floyd
Comparators
If the level of the pulse must be less than the output of a saturated op-amp, a zener-diode can be used to limit the output to a particular voltage. This is called output bounding. Either positive, negative, or both halves of the output signal can be bounded by use of one or two zener diodes respectively.
Figure 1313
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1313
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1316
A simultaneous (flash) analog-to-digital converter (ADC) using
op-amps as comparators.
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1317 digital.
Sampling of values on analog waveform for conversion to
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1318
Resulting digital outputs for sampled values in Figure 1317.
D0 is the least significant digit.
Thomas L. Floyd
Summing Amplifiers
The summing amplifier basically has two or more inputs and the output voltage is the negative sum of the inputs. With the unity gain summing amplifier the output can be determined simply by the addition of each of the input voltages. Rf is the same each of the input resistors for a summing amplifier with unity gain.
Summing Amplifiers
For gain to be greater than unity, Rf must be greater than the input resistances. The gain is calculated as normal with any one of the input resistances. The sum of the inputs and the gain would be the output.
Figure 1322 EX. 13-5
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1323 EX 13-6
Thomas L. Floyd
Summing Amplifiers
Another type of summing amplifier, the averaging amplifier, can produce an average voltage of the inputs setting the ratio of Rf to input resistance to the reciprocal of the inputs.
Rf/R = 1/n
Figure 1324 EX 13-7
Thomas L. Floyd
Summing Amplifiers
The scaling adder is a summing adder with input given a weight by choice of each value of input resistance. The Rf to input resistance ratio would determine what the voltage output would be with a signal present at each input. This type of adder could be used for digital-to-analog conversion.
VOUT = - (Rf/R1 VIN1 + Rf/R2 VIN2 +.+ Rf /Rn VINn )
Figure 1325
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1326 A scaling adder as a four-digit digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1327
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1328
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1329
An R/2R ladder DAC.
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1330 Analysis of the R/2R
ladder DAC.
Thomas L. Floyd
Copyright 2005 by Pearson Educati Upper Saddle River, New Jerse All rights re
Integrators And Differentiators

The basic integrator is easily identified by the capacitor in the feedback loop. A constant input voltage yields a ramp output. Note the input resistor and the capacitor form a RC circuit. The slope of the ramp is determined by the RC time constant. The integrator can be used to change a square wave input into a triangular wave output. The rate of change can be determined by the formula below.
Vout/Vin = -Vin/RiC
Figure 1333 A linear ramp voltage is produced across C by the constant charging current.
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1335
Thomas L. Floyd
Integrators And Differentiators

The differentiator does the opposite of the integrator in that it takes a sloping input and provides an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input. Note the capacitor is in the input circuit. The output voltage can be determined by the formula below. A triangular input would yield a square wave output.
Vout = -(Vc/t)RfC
Figure 1337
A differentiator with a ramp input.
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1339
Thomas L. Floyd
Figure 1340
Thomas L. Floyd
Troubleshooting
Op-amps are very reliable. However, internal failures do occur perhaps as a result of an external failure. A stuck output in either positive or negative maximum voltage is one type of internal failure.
Troubleshooting
Bounded comparator op-amps could fail as a result of faulty zener(s). In this example with one open zener the comparator operates unbounded. What would the effects be with a shorted diode?
Troubleshooting
With a summing type of amplifier an open input resistor would cause the output to be less than normal.
Summary
The op-amp comparators output changes state when the input voltage exceeds the reference voltage. Interference from noise can be lowered by hysteresis. Bounding limits the output of comparator.
The summing amplifiers output is the sum of the inputs.

An averaging amplifier yields an output that is the average of all the inputs.
Summary
The scaling adder has inputs of differing weight with each contributing more or less to the input. Integrators change a constant voltage input to a sloped output. Differentiators change a sloping input into a step voltage proportional to the rate of change.

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Chapter 13 Op-Amp Circuits

Comparators - Zero-level Detection

Comparators - Nonzero-level Detection

Comparators - Nonzero-level Detection

Figure 138 Operation of a comparator with hysteresis.

Comparator with output bounding.

Figure 1311 comparator.

A simultaneous (flash) analog-to-digital converter (ADC) using

Figure 1317 digital.

Sampling of values on analog waveform for conversion to

Resulting digital outputs for sampled values in Figure 1317.

D0 is the least significant digit.

Figure 1322 EX. 13-5

Figure 1323 EX 13-6

Figure 1324 EX 13-7

VOUT = - (Rf/R1 VIN1 + Rf/R2 VIN2 +.+ Rf /Rn VINn )

Figure 1326 A scaling adder as a four-digit digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

An R/2R ladder DAC.

Figure 1330 Analysis of the R/2R

Integrators And Differentiators

Integrators And Differentiators

A differentiator with a ramp input.

The summing amplifiers output is the sum of the inputs.

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