Strain Theories

Social structure theories Blocked opportunities for legitimate success leads to criminal behavior 3 classic strain theories
Anomie theory Theory of delinquent subcultures Differential opportunity theory

Anomie
Emil Durkheim Anomie = normlessness Anomie most likely to occur in societies that are moving from mechanical to organic solidarity Anomie undermines societys control functions

Theory of Anomie (1938)

Robert Merton Found 2 elements of culture that interact to produce potentially anomic conditions
culturally defined goals Socially approved means for obtaining them

Disjunction between goals and means causes strain which causes anomie

Individual Modes of Adaptation

Conformity Innovation Ritualism Retreatism Rebellion

Goals + + +/-

Means + + +/-

Limitations to Anomie Theory

Assumes consensus concerning goals and values Does not explain all types of crime Does not explain the choices that are made Does not explain aging out

Overprediction

Theory of Delinquent Subcultures (1955)

Albert Cohen Strain is the result of an inability to achieve status among peers by socially acceptable means
Middle-class measuring rods Status frustration

Cohens Subcultures
Corner boy subculture
College boy subculture Delinquent boy subculture

Differential Opportunity Theory

Cloward and Ohlin Disjunction between goals and the means causes strain Crime is the result of differential opportunity structures

Subculture Formations
Criminal gangs
Conflict gangs Retreatist gangs

Policy Implications for Strain Theories

Expand legitimate opportunities Rehabilitation programs for prisoners

Reduce material aspirations

Mobilization for Youth

Based on Cloward and Ohlins work
Set up educational and employment support Supported community self-help Worked to change political structure

General Strain Theory

Robert Agnew (1992) Strain inducing stimuli
Failure to achieve goals The removal of positively valued stimuli The presence of negatively valued stimuli

Stress causes individual to take corrective action

General Strain Theory

Cognitive coping strategies
Minimize the importance of goals Minimize negative outcomes Accepting responsibility

Cultural Deviance Theories

Social structure theories
Social and economic deprivation lead to the creation of an independent culture

Cultural norms can clash with conventional values

Culture Conflict Theory (1938)

Thorsten Sellin Different groups maintain their own set of conduct norms Criminal law expresses the rules of the dominant culture Conflict and crime occur when following the norms of ones own culture causes a person to break the legislated conduct norms of the dominant culture

Focal Concerns (1958)

Walter Miller
Values evolve specifically to fit the conditions of impoverished areas

Conformance to these focal concerns dominates life among the lower class

Focal Concerns
Trouble Toughness Smartness Excitement Fate Autonomy

Policy Implications of Cultural Deviance Theories

Assimilation
Cultural Socialization Develop laws that are clear and simple

Social Contexts of the 1960s

Protests over discrimination Development of a youth counterculture

Reaction to the Vietnam war

Lack of social consensus

The 1960s Impact on Criminology

Social Control Theories
concerned with the loss of self-control and the breakdown of traditional sources of social control

Labeling Theory
examines the role of the state in creating the crime problem

Conflict Theories
examines the role of power differentials in creating the crime problem

Social Control Theories

Asks: Why dont people commit crimes?

What differentiates non-criminals from criminals is effective socialization

self-control commitment to conformity

Peoples behavior is controlled by peoples attachment and commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes

2 General Kinds of Control Theory

Broken Bond Theory Failed to Bond Theory

Stake in Conformity (1957)

Jackson Toby
How much a person has to lose by breaking the law

Social Bonding Theory (1969)

Travis Hirschi A failed to bond theory All people would break the law if they did not fear the consequences of getting caught Ties or bonds to conventional parents, schools, friends, employers etc. make crime too much of a risk for most people

Components of the Bond

Attachment Commitment

Involvement Belief

Self-Control Theory (1990)

Gottfredson and Hirschi Self-control
Surveillance Labeling Punishment

Policy Implications of Control Theories

Target families
Supervision, surveillance, and control Better child rearing practices Parent training and family therapy reduce abuse and neglect Surrogate families and group homes

Target at risk youths

Counseling and special supervision Problem-solving and social skills

Limitations of Social Control Theories

Causal direction of bonding is unclear Rejects the idea of delinquent motivation Underemphasizes the role of delinquent associates Does not address aging out Assumes a consensus concerning moral values Ignores the criminalization process

Labeling Theory
Criminalization Process Attempts to explain the continuation of criminal behavior Based on symbolic interaction

Symbolic Interactionism
George Herbert Mead
The study of how people communicate and interact through the use of agreed upon symbols and gestures

3 Main Points of Interactionism

People respond to their interpretation of reality
W.I. Thomas

We learn how to respond to situations based on the meanings of those situations that we get from people We re-evaluate our behavior based on the responses of other people
Charles Cooley

Labeling Theory
Crime is socially constructed
Labeling theory attempts to answer 3 questions:
What types of behaviors acquire the label of crime Who acquires the label of criminal What are the consequences of acquiring such a label

Acts that Acquire the Criminal Label

There is nothing inherently criminal about any act Crime is defined by the societal reaction to behavior Moral entrepreneurs are responsible for defining behaviors as criminal

Who is Likely to Acquire the Label

Labeling theorists suggest behavior is not always the most important factor Other important factors include:
Race Social Class Sex Organizational goals and available resources of the police Political demands

Consequences of the Label

Responses to crime may be criminogenic

CJ system labels individuals as deviant or criminal

Criminal label increases delinquency

It is consistent with the idea that our selfdefinitions are developed and maintained in interaction with each others

Criminalization Process
Frank Tannenbaum
The Dramatization of Evil

Edwin Lemert
Primary deviance Secondary deviance

Harold Garfinkel
Status degradation ceremonies

Criminal as Master Status

Howard Becker Criminal becomes a master status Retrospective interpretation Deviance amplification Become unattached to conventional others and activities Criminal associations increase Criminality increases

Reintegrative Shaming (1989)

John Braithwaite Shaming expresses disapproval which invokes remorse in the offender Two types of shaming:
Disintegrative Reintegrative

Criticisms of the Labeling Perspective

Does not explain initiation into criminality Does not go far enough in explaining how societys power structure defines crime Does not explain why some do develop stable criminal careers without ever being labeled Research support as been limited

Policy Implications
Reduce contact with criminal justice system
Decriminalization Diversion Due Process Deinstitutionalization

Conflict and Radical Theories

Examine structural causes of crime Crime and law enforcement are often political acts rooted in group or class conflict Causes of crime are seen as rooted in conflict that stems from inequality

Conflict vs. Radical Theories

Conflict theories
Max Weber Georg Simmel Inequality based on differences in wealth, status, ideas, religious beliefs etc. Differences result in formation of interest groups that struggle with each other for power Conflict is pluralistic

Conflict vs. Radical Theories

Radical theories
Karl Marx Fundamental conflict is economic
capitalist vs. laborers

Lower classes are exploited by those in the upper classes Economic inequality is at the root of all conflicts

Conflict vs. Radical Theories Shared Assumptions

Crime is the result of the organization of society Macro-level perspective Possession of power is important Examine law making, interpretation and enforcement Reject legal definitions of crime

Class, Status and Party (1922)

Max Weber Dimensions of inequality
Power Wealth Prestige

Conflict is most likely when these 3 kinds of stratification coincide Conflict is also likely when access to these positions are highly restricted

The Social Reality of Crime (1970)

Richard Quinney Criminalization maintains the current balance of power or increases a groups power Some meanings of crime have social reality Behaviors that are most threatening to the powerful are most likely to be criminalized

Limitations to Conflict Theory

Overly pluralistic
Does not identify the source of power Conflict theory is reformist

Policy Implications
Broad strategy of reform and transformation Minimize human casualties Change structural relationships Field controls rather than punishment Aim for a more viable rather than docile society

Marxist Theory
Historical Materialism- Stages of social history are distinguished by different modes of production Mode of production- economic structure Means of production- technology, tools, resources, knowledge, etc. Relations of production- determines class and social wealth

Marxist Theory
Capitalism creates class conflict
Capitalist- maximize profits Laborers- fair wages and working conditions

Surplus Value- the difference between what a laborer is paid and the value that he/she actually produces
Surplus Population- a ready pool of unemployed laborers

Criminality and Economic Conditions (1905)

Willem Bonger Crimes are simply the acting out of a criminal thought Criminal thoughts are more likely to occur in societies that promote egoism over altruism Capitalism promotes egoism

Contemporary Radical Criminology

A product of the 1960s
Reject individual-level theories of crime Reject theories that inadequately account for the criminogenic nature of capitalism

 Capitalism shapes social institutions, social identities and social action Capitalism creates class conflict Crime is a response to capitalism
results from surplus population education individualistic competition crimes of accommodation and resistance

Contemporary Radical Criminology

Contemporary Radical Criminology

Capitalist law facilitates and conceals crimes of domination and repression
Capitalism shapes societys response to crime by shaping law

Instrumental Marxism
The state is a tool used to protect the interest of the capitalists The law and CJ system are coercive instruments used to control the lower classes Tends to suggest a conspiracy Capitalist are seen as a unified, monolithic group

Structural Marxism
The state acts on behalf of the long-term interest of capitalism The capitalist system is protected through laws and the criminal justice system Must enact and enforce laws that benefit the economically less powerful to prevent revolt Capitalist are not seen as a unified, monolithic group

Limitations to Radical Theory

If capitalism is criminogenic, why do other capitalist countries have low crime rates
Overly deterministic conception of class structure

Policy Implications
Change the social structure
Change the economic structure Raise consciousness Decriminalize non-violent crimes

Critical Theory
Attempts to expose systems of domination and oppression (capitalism, racism and sexism)
Attempts to deconstruct socially constructed inequalities

Critical Criminology
Reject legal definitions of crime Reject causal analysis Oppose existing social structures based on inequality Criticizes the existing criminal justice system Critical policies require radical transformations

Feminist Theories
Sex- refers to biological differences Gender- refers to differences in socialization
Socially constructed conceptions of women

4 types of feminist theory

Liberal Feminism Radical Feminism Marxist Feminism Socialist Feminism

Liberal Feminism
Womens lesser involvement in crime results from differences in socialization and available opportunities Emancipation Thesis

Policy implication: Grant equal access and increase opportunities for women

Radical Feminism
Crime is mens behavior, not womens Men are biologically aggressive and dominant Focuses on patriarchy-- rule by men or male domination Men control the reproductive forces of women

Policy Implications for Radical Feminism

Liberation from mens control and domination
Matriarchy

Birth control
Lesbianism as political action

Marxist Feminism
Oppression of women is due to capitalism
Womens role is to reproduce and socialize compliant workers

Women's criminal behavior is a reflection of dependency and oppression

Policy Implications
Change the capitalist class structure
Pay for housework Provide house care and child care

Socialist Feminism
Dual system of oppression
patriarchy and capitalism

Policy implications
replace capitalism expose and eliminate male dominated hierarchies reproductive and sexual freedom

The Future of Criminology

Integrated theories?
Integrating different theories within the same discipline Integrating theories from different disciplines
Life course theories Holistic theories