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Lecture 11 Overview
Amplifier impedance
The operational amplifier
Ideal op-amp
Negative feedback
Applications
Amplifiers
Summing/ subtracting circuits



Why do we care about the input and output impedance?
Simplest "black box" amplifier model:
Impedances
R
IN

R
OUT

V
IN
AV
IN

V
OUT

The amplifier measures voltage across R
IN
, then generates a voltage
which is larger by a factor A
This voltage generator, in series with the output resistance R
OUT
, is
connected to the output port.
A should be a constant (i.e. gain is linear)
Attach an input - a source voltage V
S
plus source impedance R
S

Impedances
R
IN

R
OUT

V
IN

AV
IN

V
OUT

Note the voltage divider R
S
+ R
IN
.
V
IN
=V
S
(R
IN
/(R
IN
+R
S
)
We want V
IN
= V
S
regardless of source impedance
So want R
IN
to be large.
The ideal amplifier has an infinite input impedance
V
S

R
S

Attach a load - an output circuit with a resistance R
L

Impedances
Note the voltage divider R
OUT
+ R
L
.
V
OUT
=AV
IN
(R
L
/(R
L
+R
OUT
))
Want V
OUT
=AV
IN
regardless of load
We want R
OUT
to be small.
The ideal amplifier has zero output impedance
R
IN

R
OUT

V
IN

AV
IN

V
OUT

V
S

R
S

R
L

Operational Amplifier
Integrated circuit containing ~20 transistors, multiple amplifier stages
Operational Amplifier
An op amp is a high voltage gain, DC amplifier with high input
impedance, low output impedance, and differential inputs.
Positive input at the non-inverting input produces positive output,
positive input at the inverting input produces negative output.
Operational Amplifier
An op amp is a high voltage gain, DC amplifier with high input
impedance, low output impedance, and differential inputs.
Positive input at the non-inverting input produces positive output,
positive input at the inverting input produces negative output.
Can model any amplifier as a "black-box" with a parallel input
impedance R
in
, and a voltage source with gain A
v
in series with an
output impedance R
out
.
Ideal op-amp
Place a source and a load on the model
Infinite internal resistance R
in
(so v
in
=v
s
).
Zero output resistance R
out
(so v
out
=A
v
v
in
).
"A" very large
i
in
=0; no current flow into op-amp
-
+
v
out

R
L

R
S

So the equivalent circuit of an
ideal op-amp looks like this:
Many Applications e.g.
Amplifiers
Adders and subtractors
Integrators and differentiators
Clock generators
Active Filters
Digital-to-analog converters

Applications
Originally developed for use in analog computers:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBILL8UypHA

Applications
Originally developed for use in analog computers:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBILL8UypHA

Using op-amps
Power the op-amp and apply a voltage
Works as an amplifier, but:
No flexibility (A~10
5-6
)
Exact gain is unreliable (depends on chip, frequency and temp)
Saturates at very low input voltages (Max v
out
=power supply voltage)
To operate as an amp, v
+
-v
-
<V
S
/A=12/10
5
so v
+
v
-

In the ideal case, when an op-amp is functioning properly in the
active region, the voltage difference between the inverting and non-
inverting inputs0

Noninverting Amplifier
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
=
+
2 1
2
) (
R R
R
v v A v
v v A v
O IN O
O
IN O
Av
R R
AR
v =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
2 1
2
1
2 1
2
1
R R
AR
Av
v
IN
O
+
+
=
When A is very large:
Take A=10
6
, R
1
=9R, R
2
=R
10
10
1
10 1
10
9
10
1
10
6
6
6
6
~
+
=
+
+
=
IN O
IN
O
IN
O
v v
v
v
R R
R
v
v
2
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2
1
R
R R
v v
R R
R
A
Av
v
R R
AR
Av
v
IN O
IN
O
IN
O
+
~
+

=
+
+
=
Gain now determined only by resistance ratio
Doesnt depend on A, (or temperature,
frequency, variations in fabrication)
>>1
Negative feedback:
How did we get to stable operation in the linear
amplification region???
Feed a portion of the output signal back into the input
(feeding it back into the inverting input = negative feedback)
This cancels most of the input
Maintains (very) small differential signal at input
Reduces the gain, but if the open loop gain is ~, who
cares?
Good discussion of negative feedback here:
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_8/4.html

Why use Negative feedback?:
Helps to overcome distortion and non-linearity
Improves the frequency response
Makes properties predictable - independent of
temperature, manufacturing differences or other
properties of the opamp
Circuit properties only depend upon the
external feedback network and so can be easily
controlled
Simplifies circuit design - can concentrate on
circuit function (as opposed to details of
operating points, biasing etc.)

More insight
Under negative feedback:

+
+
~

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
v v
A
v
R
R R
A
v
v v
IN
O
0
1
2 1
We also know
i
+
0
i
-
0
Helpful for analysis (under negative feedback)
Two "Golden Rules"
1) No current flows into the op-amp
2) v
+
v
-


More insight
Allows us to label almost every point in circuit terms of v
IN
!
1) No current flows into the op-amp
2) v
+
v
-


Op amp circuit 1: Voltage follower
So v
O
=v
IN

or, using equations

2
2 1
R
R R
v v
IN O
+
=
=
=
2
1
0
R
R
What's the gain of this circuit?
Op amp circuit 1: Voltage follower
So v
O
=v
IN

or, using equations

2
2 1
R
R R
v v
IN O
+
=
=
=
2
1
0
R
R
What's the application of this circuit?
Buffer
voltage gain = 1
input impedance=
output impedance=0
Useful interface between different circuits:
Has minimum effect on previous and next
circuit in signal chain
R
IN
R
OUT
V
IN
AV
IN V
OUT
V
S
R
S
R
L
Op amp circuit 2: Inverting Amplifier
S
S
F
out
F
out
S
S
F
out
S
S
F S
in F S
v
R
R
v
R
v
R
v
R
v v
R
v v
i i
i i i
=

=
= = +

0 0
0
Signal and feedback resistor,
connected to inverting (-) input.

v
+
=v
-
connected to ground
S
F
S
out
R
R
v
v
= = Gain
0 = =
+
v v
v
+
grounded, so:
Op amp circuit 3: Summing Amplifier
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
= + + +
= + + +
SN
SN
F
S
S
F
S
S
F
out
F
out
SN
SN
S
S
S
S
F N
v
R
R
v
R
R
v
R
R
v
R
v
R
v
R
v
R
v
i i i i
.....
.....
.....
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2 1
Same as previous, but add more
voltage sources
) ... (
2 1 SN S S
S
F
out
v v v
R
R
v + + + =
S SN S S
R R R R = = = = ... If
2 1
Summing Amplifier Applications
Applications - audio mixer
Adds signals from a number of waveforms
http://wiredworld.tripod.com/tronics/mixer.html
Can use unequal resistors to get a weighted sum
For example - could make a 4 bit binary - decimal converter
4 inputs, each of which is +1V or zero
Using input resistors of 10k (ones), 5k (twos), 2.5k (fours) and 1.25k (eights)
Op amp circuit 4: Another non-inverting amplifier
Feedback resistor still to inverting input,
but no voltage source on inverting input
(note change of current flow)
Input voltage to non-inverting input
+
= v v
F S
i i =
S
in
v v v
i
= =
=
+
and
0 since
F
out
S
R
v v
R
v

=
0
S
F
S
out
S
S
F
out
S
F
out
R
R
v
v
v
R
R
v
v
R
R
v
+ = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

1 Gain
1
1
Op amp circuit 5: Differential Amplifier (subtractor)
0
2 1
= +i i
) (
1 2
1
2
2
2 1
2
2 1
1
v v
R
R
v
v v
R R
R
v
v v
R
v v
R
v v
out
out
=
=
+
=
=

+
+

Useful terms:
if both inputs change together, this is a common-mode input change
if they change independently, this is a normal-mode change
A good differential amp has a high common-mode rejection ratio (CMMR)
Differential Amplifier applications
Very useful if you have two inputs corrupted with the same noise
Subtract one from the other to remove noise, remainder is signal
Many Applications : e.g. an electrocardiagram measures the
potential difference between two points on the body
The AD624AD is an instrumentation amplifier - this is a high gain, dc
coupled differential amplifier with a high input impedance and high CMRR
(the chip actually contains a few opamps)
http://www.picotech.com/applications/ecg.html