Molecules of Life

Chapter 3, section 2

What is necessary?
4 main classes of organic compounds are essential to the processes of living things
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids

Carbohydrates
Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Ratio: one carbon atom to two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom

Some used as source of energy Some used as structural material

Monosaccharides Disaccharides polysaccharides

Monosaccharide
Monomer of a carbohydrate Simple sugar
Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1 (CH2O)n where n is any whole number from 3-8
Six-carbon monosaccharide (CH2O)6 has the formula C6H12O6

Common Monosaccharides
Glucose Fructose Galactose

Glucose, Fructose and Galactose

Glucose serves as a main source of energy for cells Fructose is found in fruits
Sweetest of monosaccharides

Galactose is found in milk

Isomers
Compounds with a singular chemical formula but different structural forms

Disaccharides
When two monosaccharides come together Double sugar Combined in a condensation reaction
Fructose + glucosesucrose

Polysaccharide
Complex molecule composed of 3 or more monosaccharides Animals store glucose in the form of the polysaccharide GLYCOGEN
Hundreds of glucose molecules strung together in a highly branched chain Much of the glucose in food is stored as glycogen in our liver and muscles
Can use as quick energy

Starch
Plants store glucose molecules as starch
polysaccharide

Two basic forms

Highly branched chains Long, coiled, un-branched chains

More on Plants
They can make cellulose
Large polysaccharide Gives strength and rigidity to plant cells Makes up about 50% of wood Thousands of glucose monomers are linked in a long, straight chain
Chains can form hydrogen bonds with each other Strong

Proteins
Organic compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Formed from the linkage of monomers called AMINO ACIDS
Hair, horns, skin, muscles and enzymes

Amino Acids
20 different aa that share a basic structure Each contains a central carbon atom covalently bonded to four other atoms or functional groups The main difference among different amino acids is their R groups
Whats an R group?

R group can be complex or simple

Functional Group Amino

RNH2

Difference in R Groups
Different shapes
Allow proteins to carry out many different activities in living things

Dipeptides
Two amino acids form a covalent bond and form a dipeptide Condensation reaction
What does this mean?

Polypeptides
Very long chains of aa Proteins are composed of one or more polypeptides
Some proteins are very large molecules containing hundreds of amino acids Often these long proteins are bent and folded upon themselves as a result of interactions
Hydrogen bonding between individual aa

Protein Shape
Can be influenced by conditions such as temperature and the type of solvent in which a protein is dissolved
Ex: cooking an egg changes the shape of proteins in the egg white. Starts out clear and runny, ends up firm and white

Enzymes
RNA or protein molecules that act as biological catalysts Many enzymes are proteins Turn to p. 57, figure 3-9

Enzyme Reaction
Depend on the physical fit between the enzyme molecule and its specific substrate
Substrate: the reactant being catalyzed Active site: the location where the substrate can fit into the enzyme

So
An enzyme acts only on a specific substrate because only that substrate fits into that active site

Linking Substrate and Enzymes

This linkage causes a slight change in the enzymes shape Change in enzymes shape weakens some chemical bonds in substrate
One way that enzymes reduce activation energy

After the Reaction

Enzyme releases the products But, the enzyme is relatively unchanged so the enzyme may be used more than once

Environmental Changes
An enzyme may not work if the environment is changed
Ex: change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the shape of the enzyme OR substrate and then they wont link

Lipids
Large, nonpolar organic molecules
Do not dissolve in water
Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, waxes and pigments

Higher ratio of carbon and hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms than carbohydrates Store more energy/gram than carbohydrates

Fatty Acids
Un-branched carbon chains that make up most lipids Long chains with a carboxyl group attached at one end
--COOH

Two ends of the fatty acid molecule have different properties (see p. 59, figure 3-10)

Huh?
Carboxyl end is polar and is HYDROPHILIC (remember that word?) The hydrocarbon end of the molecule is nonpolar and thus, HYDROPHOBIC (what?)

Saturated vs. Unsaturated

Palmitic Acid (saturated)
All Carbon atoms are full (meaning, they are bonded to the maximum number of atoms they can possibly bond with)

Linoleic Acid (unsaturated)

All Carbon atoms are not full and some may be double bonded with some atoms

Three Classes of Lipids

That are important to living things contain fatty acids
Triglycerides (fats) Phospholipids waxes

Triglyceride
Composed of three molecules of fatty acids joined to one molecule of the of the alcohol glycerol

Triglycerides (continued)
Saturated triglycerides are composed of saturated fatty acids
Typically have high melting points Hard at room temperature
Butter Fats in red meat

Unsaturated triglycerides
Found primarily in plant seeds
What is the purpose of this?

Phospholipids
Have 2 (not 3) fatty acids attached to a molecule of glycerol Phosphate group attached to the third carbon of the glycerol
Cell membranes are made of two layers of phospholipids (lipid bilayer)
Forms a barrier for fluids (b/c lipids do not dissolve in water)

Waxes
Structural lipid consisting of a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain Waterproof
In plants, they form a protective coating on the outer surfaces In animals, form protective layers
Whats the purpose of?

Steroids
Steroid molecules are composed of four fused carbon rings with various functional groups attached to them Many animal hormones are steroids
Ex: testosterone, cholesterol
Cholesterol is needed for nerve and other cells to functional normally. Its also a component of the cell membrane.

Nucleic Acids
Large and complex organic molecules Store and transfer important info in the cell
Info is important for the manufacturing of proteins

Two major types:

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Can also act as enzymes

Polymers
DNA and RNA are polymers Made up of monomers
Called nucleotides
Made up of phosphate group, five carbon sugar and a ring shaped nitrogenous base