Understanding Operating Systems Fifth Edition

Understanding Operating Systems Fifth Edition
Chapter 13 Unix Operating System
Learning Objectives
The goals of UNIX designers The significance of using files to manipulate devices The strengths and weaknesses of having competing versions of UNIX The advantages of command-driven user interfaces The roles of the Memory, Processor, Device, and File Managers in UNIX
Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition
Overview
Three major advantages of UNIX
Portability
Code written in high-level language (C language)
Powerful utilities
Brief, single operation commands Combinable into single command
Application device independence

Configurable to operate on any device type
Disadvantage
No single standardized version Brief, cryptic commands difficult for novice learner
Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition 3
History
Research project originally in 1965
Joint venture between Bell Labs, AT&T, General Electric, and MIT
Goal
Develop MULTICS for GE-645 mainframe
MULTICS ambition
Serve diverse user group needs
Too intricate, complex, large for commercial value
Bell labs withdrew in 1969 Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie continued the project
History (continued)
The Evolution of Unix

Original language
DEC PDP-7 assembly language
First official version: 1971

Design
Do one thing well
Ran on DEC PDP-11 No pipes or filters

Added in version 2
Thompson and Ritchie: version 3

New programming language (C language)
The Evolution of Unix (continued)

AT&T forbidden to sell software
Universities and developers advanced software
Commercial transformation Berkley BSD version: 1973-1975
1984: government deregulation

AT&T personal computer with UNIX System 4
Contained additional Berkley version features AT&T System 4 promotion as standard fails
1990: two dozen versions

1991: AT&T UNIX system laboratories
Develops System V release 4 Features
System V release 3, BSD 4.3, SunOS, Xenix
The Open Group formed

Owns UNIX trademark
1993: Berkeley
4.4 BSD: based on AT&Ts UNIX (AT&T license) Novell acquires UNIX from AT&T

Current releases
Modify do one thing well position Commands more difficult to use
Pipelines preserved
Adaptable to new situations with ease

Meet new user needs
Full local area network support Comply with international standards Security improved Uses Common Desktop Environment (CDE) ISO/IEC 9945:2003 Standard
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Design Goals
Thompson and Ritchie vision
UNIX operating system
Created by programmers for programmers
Fast, flexible, easy-to-use
Immediate goals
Support software development
Included utilities for customized code Utilities designed for simplicity: do one thing well Small manageable sections of code
Keep algorithms simple

Based on simplicity, not sophistication
Design Goals (continued)

Long-term goal
Portability
Reduces conversion costs Application packages not obsolete
Achieved with UNIX version 4

Hardware independent
POSIX
Portable operating system interface for computer environments
IEEE standards defining portable operating system interface IEEE STD. 1003.1 (2004 edition)
Memory Management
Multiprogramming systems
Swapping (small jobs)
Entire program in main memory before execution Program size restriction Round robin policy
Demand paging (large jobs)

More complicated hardware Increases system overhead Thrashing (under heavy loads) Advantage: implements virtual memory concept
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Memory Management (continued)

Typical internal memory layout (single user)
Program code Data segment Stack
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Program code
Sharable portion of program Reentrant code
Physically shared by several processes Code protected: instructions not modified during normal execution Data references: without absolute physical address
Space allocation
Program cannot release until all processes completed Text table: tracks processes using program code
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Data segment
After program code
Grows toward higher memory locations
Nonsharable section of memory
Stack
Starts at highest memory address
Grows downward Subroutine calls and interrupts add information Main memory Process information saved when process interrupted
Nonsharable section of memory

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition 15 15

UNIX kernel
Implements system calls
Memory boundaries for process coexistence
System calls
File Manager interaction and request of I/O services
Implements most primitive system functions

Permanently resides in memory
Uses LRU page replacement algorithm
Network PCs, single-user, and multi-user systems

Use same memory management concepts
Process Management
Handles
CPU allocation Process scheduling Satisfaction of process requests
Kernel maintains tables

Coordinates process execution Device allocation
Uses predefined policies

Select process from READY queue Begin execution
Give time slice
Process Management (continued)

Process scheduling algorithm
Selects highest priority process to run first Priority value: accumulated CPU time
Processes with large CPU time get lower priority
Compute-to-total-time ratio
System updates for each job every second Total time process in system divided by used process CPU time
Ratio = one
CPU-bound job
18

Process scheduling algorithm (continued)
Processes with same computed priority
Handled by round robin
Interactive processes: low ratio (no special policies) Balance I/O-bound jobs with CPU-bound jobs
Keeps processor busy Minimizes waiting processes overhead
19

Process scheduling algorithm (continued)
Loading process from READY queue
Process with longest secondary storage time
Swap out process

Process waiting longest (disk I/O, idle )
When processor becomes available

Process selected may not be ready (waiting on I/O) Determine inactive but ready for execution Process priorities recalculated Handled dynamically
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Process Table Versus User Table

Simple processes (nonsharable code) Tables
Keep system running smoothly
Process table
Always resides in memory Maintains text table
User table
Resides in memory while process is active User table, process data segment, code segment
Swapped as needed
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Process Table Versus User Table (continued)

Process table Each entry contains:
Process identification number User identification number Process memory address or secondary storage address Process size and scheduling information
Set up when process is created Deleted when process terminates
23

Text table
Sharable code processes Process table maintains
Contains:
Memory address or secondary storage address of text segment (sharable code) Count: tracks number of processes using code
Increased by one when process starts using code Decreased by one when process stops using code Count = 0: implies code no longer needed

User table
Allocated to each active process Stored in transient memory area
Contains:
User and group identification numbers
Determine file access privileges
Pointers to systems file table

Every file process uses
Pointer to current directory List of responses for various interrupts All information accessible when process running
Synchronization
UNIX
True multitasking operating system
Requires processes wait for certain events

Each event represented by integers
Equal to address of table associated with event
Race occurs
Event happens during process transition decision
Wait for event and entering WAIT state
26
Synchronization (continued)
fork
Execute one program from another program Second program
Given all first program attributes (open files)
Save first program in original form Split program: two copies

Both run from statement after fork command
fork executed
Process id (pid) generated Ensure each process has unique ID number
28
wait
Synchronize process execution
Suspend parent until child finished
Program IF-THEN-ELSE structure

Controlled by pid value pid > zero: parent process pid = zero: child process pid < zero: error in fork call
29
30
exec
Start new program execution from another program
execl, execv, execls, execlp, and execvp
Successful exec call

Overlay second program over first Only second program in memory
No return from successful exec call

Parent-child concept: does not hold
Each exec call

Followed by test ensuring successful completion
31
32
Device Management
Device independence to applications
I/O device treated as special file type
Device files given name

Descriptors called iodes
Identifies devices, contains device information, stored in device directory
Device drivers
Subroutines working with operating system Supervise data transmission
Between main memory and peripheral unit
Most common drivers included in UNIX

Device Management (continued)

Device driver kernel incorporation
During system configuration
Recent UNIX versions

Program called config Automatically creates conf.c
For any hardware configuration
conf.c contains parameters controlling resources

Number of internal kernel buffers and swap space size
conf.c contains two tables

bdevsw (block I/O switch) cdevsw (character I/O switch)
Device Classifications
Divide I/O system
Block I/O system (structured I/O system) Character I/O system (unstructured I/O system)
Physical device identification

Minor device number Major device number Class: block or character
35
Device Classifications (continued)
36

Class: block or character
Each has configuration table
Array of entry points into device drivers
Major device number

Index to array to access appropriate code (specific driver)
Minor device number

Passed as an argument to device driver Access one of several identical physical devices
Block I/O system

Devices addressed as 512-byte block sequences Allows device manager to buffer (reduce I/O traffic)

Character class devices
Device drivers handle implementing character lists Example: terminal
Typical character device Two input queues and one output queue
I/O procedure synchronized through hardware completion interrupts Some devices belong to both classes
Examples: disk drives, tape drives
38
Device Drivers
Special section in kernel
Includes instructions
Allows operating system communication with device
Disk drives device drivers

Use seek strategy to minimize arm movement
Kept in set of files

Loaded as needed
Case of seldom used devices
Kept in memory all the time

Loaded at boot time
Kept in /dev directory by default and convention

File Management
Three file types
Directories Ordinary files Special files
Each enjoys certain privileges Directories

Maintain hierarchical structure of file system Users allowed to read information in directory files Only system allowed directory file modification
40
File Management (continued)

Ordinary files
Users store information Protection based on user requests
Related to read, write, execute, delete functions performed on file
Special files
Device drivers providing I/O hardware interface Appear as entries in directories Part of file system (most in /dev directory) Special filename indicates type of device association
41

Files stored as sequences of bytes
No structure imposed
Text files
Character strings
Lines delimited by line feed, new line, character
Binary files
Sequences of binary digits
Grouped into words as they appear in memory during program execution
Structure of files
Controlled by programs using them: not by system

Organizes disk into blocks of 512 bytes each Divides disk into four basic regions
First region (address 0): reserved for booting Second region: contains disk size and other regions boundaries Third region includes: file definitions called i-list Remaining region: free blocks available for file storage
Files stored in contiguous empty blocks

Simple allocation and no need to compact

i-node Each entry in i-list called an i-node (or inode)
Contains 13 disk addresses
Contains specific file information

Owners identification Protection bits, physical address, file size Time of creation, last use, and last update Number of links File type
Directory, ordinary file, or special file
File Naming Conventions

Case-sensitive filenames 255 character length No file naming conventions
Some compilers expect specific suffixes
Supports hierarchical tree file structure

Root directory identified by slash (/)
45
File Naming Conventions (continued)
46
File Naming Conventions (continued)

Path name rules
Path name starting with slash
Root directory
Path name
One name or list of names: separated by slashes Last name on list: filename requested
Two periods (..) in path name

Moves upward in hierarchy (closer to root) Only way to go up hierarchy All other path names go down tree
Spaces not allowed within path names

Directory Listings
long listing
Eight pieces of information for each file
First column
Shows file type and access privileges for each file
First character: nature of file or directory Next three characters: access privileges granted file owner Next three characters: access privileges granted other users group members Last three characters: access privileges granted to users at large (system-wide)
Directory Listings (continued)

Second column
Indicates number of links (number of aliases)
Referring to same physical file
Aliases
Important UNIX feature: support file sharing
Several users work together on same project
Shared files appear in different directories belonging to different users Filename: may be different from directory to directory Eventually number will indicate when file no longer needed: can be deleted
Directory Listings (continued)
50
Data Structures
File descriptors divided into parts
Hierarchical directories
Contain filename and i-number Pointer to another location: i-node
i-node
Contains rest of information
i-nodes stored in reserved part of device

Where directory resides
i-node has 13 pointers (012)
51
Data Structures (continued)
52

When file opened
Device, i-number, read/write pointer stored in system file table and indexed by i-node
When file created

i-node allocated to it Directory entry with filename and i-node number created
53

When file linked
Directory entry created with new name Original i-node number and link-count field in the inode incremented by one
When shared file deleted

Link-count field in i-node decremented by one When count reaches zero
Directory entry erased Deallocate all disk blocks and allocate i-node block to file
54
User Interface
Command-driven system User commands
Very short
One character or a group of characters (acronym)
Cannot be abbreviated or spelled out Must be in correct case
System prompt very economical

Only one character: ($) or (%)
Error messages quite brief
55
User Interface (continued)
56

General syntax of commands
command arguments file_name
command
Any legal operating system command
Interpreted and executed by shell
arguments
Required for some commands, optional for others
file_name
Relative or absolute path name
57
58
Script Files
Automate repetitious tasks
Command files
Often called shell files or script files
Each line of file

Valid instruction
Executed by typing sh and script file name
Also executed by defining file as executable command

Type filename at system prompt
59
Script Files (continued)

Script file example
setenv DBPATH /u/lumber:.:/zdlf/product/central/db setenv TERMCAP $INFODIR/etc/termcap stty erase `^H set savehistory set history=20 alias h history alias 4gen infogen -f setenv PATH /usr/info/bin:/etc
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Redirection
Send output to file or another device
Symbol: > (between command and destination) Examples:
ls > myfiles cat chapt1 chapt2 > sectiona, cat chapt* > sectiona
Symbol >> appends new file to an existing file Examples:

cat chapt1 chapt2 >> sectiona cat chapt* >> sectiona
61
Redirection (continued)
Reverse redirection (<)
Takes input for program from existing file instead of keyboard Example:
mail ann roger < memo
62
Redirection (continued)
Redirection (>)
Combined with system commands to achieve any desired results Example: who > temporary
Store in temporary file: all user names logged on
Interpretation of < and >

Carried out by shell Not by individual program
Input and output redirection

Used with any program
Pipes
Provide possibility to redirect output or input to selected files or devices
Connect output from one program to input of another No need for temporary or intermediate files Example: who | sort
Pipeline
Several programs simultaneously processing same I/O stream Example: who | sort | lpr
64
Filters
Program
Read some input, manipulate it, generate output wc (word count):
Example: wc journal System response: 10 140 700
File journal has 10 lines, 140 words, 700 characters
sort: Contents of file sorted and displayed on screen

Example: sort sortednames
65
Filters (continued)
Sort list in alphabetical order ignoring letter case
sort f > sortednames
Obtain numerical sort in ascending order

sort -n > sortednums
Obtain numerical sort in descending order

sort -nr > sortednums
66
Additional Commands
man
Displays operating system online manual Example: man cmp
Displays page for compare (cmp) command
grep
global regular expression and print Look for specific character patterns Examples:
grep Pittsburgh maillist grep -v Pittsburgh maillist grep -c Pittsburgh maillist
Additional Commands (continued)

grep (continued)
Can be combined with who command Example: who | grep sam
Sams name, device, date and time he logged in
Example: ls -l / | grep '^d

Displays subdirectories list (not files) in root directory
nohup
Log off the system without program completion Example:
nohup cp oldlargefile newlargefile and
Additional Commands (continued)

nice
Allows lowering program priority Example: nice cp oldlargefile newlargefile and
69
Summary
UNIX: major force in operating system field
Written by programmers for programmers Quite popular among programmers
Advantages
Spare user interface, device independence, portability, lack of verbosity, powerful command combinations
Disadvantages
Learning command-driven interface, brief commands
Graphical interface and point-and-click surfacing


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Understanding Operating Systems Fifth Edition

Chapter 13 Unix Operating System

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Application device independence

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

The Evolution of Unix

First official version: 1971

Ran on DEC PDP-11 No pipes or filters

Thompson and Ritchie: version 3

The Evolution of Unix (continued)

1984: government deregulation

1990: two dozen versions

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

The Evolution of Unix (continued)

The Open Group formed

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

The Evolution of Unix (continued)

Adaptable to new situations with ease

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Fast, flexible, easy-to-use

Keep algorithms simple

Design Goals (continued)

Achieved with UNIX version 4

Demand paging (large jobs)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Memory Management (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Memory Management (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Memory Management (continued)

Nonsharable section of memory

Nonsharable section of memory

Memory Management (continued)

Implements most primitive system functions

Uses LRU page replacement algorithm

Network PCs, single-user, and multi-user systems

Kernel maintains tables

Uses predefined policies

Process Management (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Process Management (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Process Management (continued)

Swap out process

When processor becomes available

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Process Table Versus User Table

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Process Table Versus User Table (continued)

Set up when process is created Deleted when process terminates

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Process Table Versus User Table (continued)

Process Table Versus User Table (continued)

Pointers to systems file table

Requires processes wait for certain events

Understanding Operating Systems, Fifth Edition

Save first program in original form Split program: two copies