Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Kuliah 9 - Proses Analisis Data Kualitatif
Kuliah 9 - Proses Analisis Data Kualitatif
Data analysis
Characteristics of qualitative data Analysis during and after data collection Analytic strategies Computerized analysis
Insights into interpreting Strategies
Interpretation of results
Data Analysis
The purpose of data analysis is to bring order to the data Characteristics of qualitative data
Thick, rich descriptions Voluminous Unorganized No single way to gain understanding of phenomena Numerous ways to report data
Objective 1.1
Data Analysis
Perspectives
Researchers messages are not neutral Researchers language creates reality Researcher is related to what and who is being studied Affect and cognition are inextricably linked What is understood is not neat, linear, or fixed
Analysis begins with the very first interaction between the researcher and the participants This is a very important perspective given the interpretive nature of the analysis and the emergent nature of qualitative research designs
Informal steps involve gathering data, examining data, comparing prior data to newer data, and developing new data to gain perspective
Objectives 3.1 and 3.2
General guidelines and strategies but few specific rules Common problems
Premature conclusions Inexperience of the researcher Self-reinforcement of the researchers own ideas without support from the data Impulsive actions Desire to finish quickly
Most problems are resolved by spending time living with the data
Objective 3.2
Large amount of data to analyze Progressively narrowing data into small groups of key data Multi-staged process of organizing, categorizing, synthesizing, interpreting, and writing
Objective 3.2
Becoming familiar with the data and identifying potential themes Examining the data in-depth to provide detailed descriptions of the setting, participants, and activities Coding and categorizing data into themes Interpreting and synthesizing data into general written conclusions
Objective 4.2
Data management
Organize and check data for completeness Start the analytical and interpretive process
Suggestions
Write dates on all notes Sequence all notes with labels Label notes according to type Make photocopies of all notes Organize computer files into folders according to data types and stages of analysis Make backup copies of files Read through data to make sure it is legible and complete Begin to note potential themes and patterns that emerge
Objective 6.1
Reading and memoing Describing the context and participants Classifying and interpreting
Objective 4.2
Reading field notes, transcripts, memos, and the observers comments The purpose is to get an initial sense of the data Suggestions
Read for several hours at a time Make marginal notes of your impressions, thoughts, ideas, etc.
Objective 4.2
Description
Purposes
Provide a true picture of the setting and events to understand and appreciate the context Separate and group pieces of data related to different aspects of the setting, events, and participants The influence of context on participants actions and understanding
Objective 4.2
Issues
The process of breaking down data into small units, determining the importance of these units, and putting pertinent units together in a general interpretive form Use of coding and classifying schemes
Topic A basic unit of information Category a classification of ideas or concepts Pattern a relationship across categories
Objective 4.2
Identifying themes
A good place to start analyzing data Listing themes or patterns you have seen emerge from the data Reducing the data to a manageable form Guidelines
Coding data
Read through all the data and attach working labels to blocks of text Cut and paste these blocks of text to index cards to make it easier to organize the data in various ways Group the index cards together based on similar labels Re-visit each group of cards to be sure each card still fits
Objectives 6.1 and 6.3
Working through a series of questions such as those proposed by Stringer (e.g., who is centrally involved, who has resources, how do things happen, etc.) Focus on the organizations vision and mission, goals and objectives, structures, operations, problems, issues, and concerns Create a visual representation of the major influences that have affected the study
Objectives 6.1 and 6.3
Concept mapping
Mapping causes and effects Represent findings in effective visual displays (e.g., graphs, charts, concept maps, etc.)
Displaying findings
Researchers must code the data Manipulation of the data is enhanced The effectiveness of this manipulation is dependent on the researchers ideas, thoughts, hunches, etc.
Interpretation
Larger conceptual ideas Consistent themes Relationships to theory Analysis involves making sense of what is in the data Interpretation involves making sense of what the data mean
Objectives 5.1 and 7.1
Interpretation
Need to understand ones own data to describe it Integrated into report writing
Based heavily on connection, common aspects, and linkages among data, categories, and patterns Interpretation makes explicit the conceptual basis of the categories and patterns
Objective 7.1
Interpretation
What is important in the data? Why is it important? What can be learned from it? So what?
Objective 7.2
Interpretation
Six strategies
The researcher knows the situation better than anyone else and can justify using his or her experiences and perspective
Seek the insights from a trusted colleague Uncover external sources that support the findings
Objective 7.3
Interpretation
Turn to theory
Provides a way to link the findings to broader issues Allows the researcher to search for increasing levels of abstraction Provides a rationale for the work Dont offer an interpretation with which you are not comfortable Suggest what needs to be done
Objective 7.3
Credibility Issues
Are the data based on your own observations or hearsay? Is there corroboration by others of your observations? In what circumstances was an observation made or reported?
Objective 7.4
Credibility Issues
How reliable are those providing data? What motivations might have influenced a participants report? What biases might have influenced how an observation was made or reported?
Objective 7.4
Huberman (1994)
Rujukan Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miles & Huberman (1982) telah menyarankan struktur berikut sebagai panduan proses analisis data kualitatif: Selecting Data, Reading Data, Presenting Data, Improving data and drawing conclusions, Collecting Data, Further research activities
(Sumber: Altrichter, Posch, & Somekh, 1993).
Miles & Huberman (1982) telah menyarankan struktur berikut sebagai panduan proses analisis data kualitatif:
Reading Data
Collecting Data
Selecting Data
Presenting Data
Langkah-langkah dalam aliran di dinamakan The Constructive Stage of Analysis / Peringkat Pembinaan.
Langkah 1(Reading data) Meneliti data-data yang diperolehi untuk mengingat kembali peristiwa & pengalaman yang berkaitan. Langkah 2(Selecting data) Menapis untuk memilih fakta yang penting. Menghimpun data mengikut kategori/ criteria. Mempermudahkan maklumat yang kompleks.
Langkah 3(Presenting data)Merumuskan data yang terpilih dalam bentuk yang mudah dipersembahkan, misalnya garis kasar atau grafik. Langkah 4(Interpreting data & drawing conclusions)Menjalinkan perhubungan antara data.Merangkakan model/teori untuk menjelaskan situasi.
Untuk menjamin kesahan (validity) kajian yang dijalankan, langkah-langkah tersebut hendaklah diiringi atau disusuli dengan The Critical Stage of Analysis / Peringkat Kritis. Sehubungan itu, dua aktiviti utama ialah: Menyemak kesahan sebarang bukti yang menyokong sesuatu dapatan. Mencari bukti yang tidak selaras dengan dapatan.
1. Analisis Kandungan (Content Analysis) Secara ringkas, kaedah ini melibatkan penyelidik Meneliti data yang diperoleh(contoh: transkrip rakaman audio sesi pengajaran & pembelajaran) dan menggariskan/menandakan perkara-perkara yang dianggap penting berhubung dengan persoalan kajian. Merujuk balik perkara-perkara yang ditandakan dan menentukan kategori yang sesuai (contoh: Penyoalan Guru, Pujian dll). Melabelkan bahagian-bahagian data dengan Nama Kategori atau Singkatan/Kodnya (Contoh: PY bagi Penyoalan, PJ bagi Pujian dsb) digunakan, pastikan koding yang lebih detail digunakan agar punca data berkenaan dapat dikenal pasti.
Kategori Pujian Punca Transkrip Sesi P&P Ke-3 Muka Surat ke-2 Baris ke-18
Meneliti data yang diperolehi (khasnya transkrip temu bual) untuk mencari kes-kes di mana sasaran kajian menghadapi dilema yang bercorak On one hand .. but, on the other hand Menuliskan satu pernyataan yang jelas tentang dilema berkenaan. Menjelajah dilema tersebut untuk memahami faktorfaktor yang menimbulkan nya, kesan serta tahap seriusnya. Mencari penyelesaian.
Data yang dipungut perlu mempunyai kredibiliti. Dengan demikian, data yang dipungut seboleh-bolehnya perlu disemak untuk menentukan sejauh manakah ianya boleh dipercayai. Satu kaedah yang popular yang digunakan untuk menyemak keboleh percayaan data kualitatif ialah triangulasi.
Cohen & Manion (1994: m.s. 236) dan Altrichter et al (1993: m.s. 116) telah mencadangkan beberapa jenis triangulasi yang boleh diamalkan mengikut situasi dan keperluan kajian iaitu 1. triangulasi masa, 2. triangulasi metod, 3. triangulasi sumber dan 4. triangulasi penyelidik.
1.Triangulasi Masa
Mengumpul data daripada sumber yang sama untuk satu jangka masa yang panjang (juga dikenali sebagai rekabentuk longitudinal). Contohnya, berbincang atau menemu bual seorang individu yang sama mengenai topik yang sama pada masa yang berlainan.
2.Triangulasi Metod
Menggunakan kaedah mengumpul data yang berlainan ke atas objek kajian yang sama (triangulasi antara kaedah between methods , untuk menguji kesahan). Contohnya, mengumpul maklumat mengenai aspek yang sama melalui temu bual, pemerhatian dan borang soal selidik. Menggunakan kaedah yang sama untuk situasi yang lain (triangulasi dalam kaedah within methods bermaksud mengulang satu kajian untuk menguji keboleh percayaan termasuk membuat replikasi).
3. Triangulasi Sumber
Mendapat maklumat dan pandangan daripada sumber-sumber informasi yang berlainan. Contohnya, mendapat pandangan pelajar, guru sebaya, pemerhatian sendiri, pihak pentadbir, buku rekod guru dan lain-lain lagi.
Altrichter et al (1993: m.s. 116) menggambarkan triangulasi tiga penjuru ini seperti berikut:
Perspektif Guru
Perspektif Pelajar
4.Triangulasi Penyelidik