Adult Development Theory: An Overview

Rationale
Most adult development theory does not specifically treat the issue of older adulthood However, the course of adult development can greatly impact status in older adulthood, and many of the same developmental processes continue to apply Working with older adults necessitates working with adult children/family members

Frame Issues
A frame issue is an issue that has the following characteristics:
1. It affects all human beings in their development and the broad outlines of their lives. 2. Individuals have partial or no control over the issue.

Power of frames not only in their reality but our perception of them

Frame Issues: Human/Existential

HUMAN LEVEL: Existential frame. The existential frame is comprised of factors that form a universal basis for human development and experience. In the Modern period they have been discussed at length by existential philosophers (e.g. Jaspers) and psychologists (e.g. Yalom).

Existential Frame (cont.)

Yaloms existential frame issues include:
1. The inevitability of death. 2. The presence of evil and suffering in life. 3. The inherent limitations of human activity, such as relationships 4. A need to find ones place in the world, which has implications for personal responsibility, willing and meaning.

Existential Frame (cont.)

Jaspers list of boundary situations (Grenzsituationen--ultimate situations) which promote Existenz (participation in Being in a particular historical context) and awareness of The Encompassing
Death Suffering Struggle Guilt (related to freedom and responsibility)

Frame Issues: Sociocultural

Culture Definitions
Definition 1: a normative system that prescribes how individuals should behave in a given context" (Moghaddam, 1998)
Culture is thus a set of beliefs about ourselves, human activity and the world around us that affects us at all times This set of beliefs is deeply ingrained and largely unconscious

Defintion 2: the uniquely human environment consisting of the residue of the activity of prior generations, existing in the present in the form of artifacts, aspects of the physical world that have been transformed by their inclusion in goal-directed human actions (Cole, 1996)

Sociocultural Frame (cont.)

Beliefs in the culture about lifes goals and the way they should be achieved lay out and limit developmental paths There is an interaction between culture and the physical environment: culture structures environment (e.g. land use) which also limits development Framework for understanding culture effects
Individualism-collectivism framework (Triandis) Competency framework (Gardner, Ogbu)

SocioculturalFrame: I-C Model

Individualism/idiocentricity
Concern with achievement Independent but lonely Emphasis on exchange relationships

Sociocultural Frame: I-C Model (cont.)

Collectivism/allocentricity
One is defined by group membership Concern about effect on others Interdependence and involvement with groups Importance of family in collectivist societies makes it an especially important factor in adult development
Culture influences both the expectations of the family and how it copes with the tasks posed at each stage of the family life cycle (Thomas, 1998)

Compliant with authority, resistant to outgroups; People in tight collectivist cultures who do not conform will receive very negative evaluations of self

Sociocultural Frame: Competence Models (Ogbu)

Universal model (Traditional)
All cultures have origins of competence in early childhood experience The same competencies are acquired in the same way in every culture

Relativistic model (Gardner)

Each culture promote different competencies because of the nature of the culture; ability may be culture specific (Searle)

Sociocultural Frame (cont.): Competence Models

Cultural-ecological (Ogbu)
Cultural ecology: the study of institutionalized and socially transmited patterns of behavior interdependent with features of the environment Competencies determined by cultural and ecological determination of adult tasks, which then determine child-rearing practices

Biological Frame
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL Issues include
Genetic predisposition to longevity Health status Accidents/illness that reduce level of functioning and/or life expectancy Level of self care

Content Issues
These are basic life issues that are confronted by most if not all people. Some theories see development as a process in which we deal with various content issues, and ones development is a function of how one has confronted and resolved the issues.

Content Issues (cont.)

Eriksonian issues:
Identity Interpersonal relationships and intimacy Life goals Generativity Meaning and purpose Integrity

Content issues (cont.)

Issues related to spirituality
Awareness/view of self, other; development of humility Spiritual awareness Vision Horizon Perspective; superficiality of Eriksonian issues

Issues related to aging

Time frame: changed by acceptance of death, aging? Life losses and gains

Content Issues (cont.)

Other issues
achievement intelligence and abilities ultimate goal of development (e.g. Freud, love and work)

Issues of Process
Focus is on how change happens and issues are dealt with, not the issues themselves Key issue: does development involve construction or discovery of the person
Traditional psychological theories emphasize construction Traditional Christian models of spiritual development/formation emphasize discovery Raises issues of how free will operates

Process (cont.)
Ultimate driving process: attempt to find unity/harmony in our abilities, view of self, others and the world; to understand experience (Gadamer); awareness of interconnections
Process goes in cycles of differentiation and integration (or assimilation and accommodation) (Vaillant: stages alternate with differentiation or integration focus) Differentiation = greater complexity, which helps with understanding (de Chardin) New integration can involve subtraction of old values/behaviors as well as additions (Vygotsky) Once integration happens, there is resistance to change

Process (cont.)
Change limited by zone of proximal development (Vygotsky): the difference between level of learning (potential) and level of development (actual) Change in new stages focused on new (Levinson) or old (Kegan) issues Openness to experience may be an inborn personality/temperamental trait that influences this process (cf. Big Five theory, Costa and McCrae) Need/desirability for unity questioned by recent research on biculturalism; this raises interesting theological issues

Process (cont.)
In Christian critique, a key is to understand what it is the individual should unify themselves around, not just whether there is unity (God? The True Self?)

Process (cont.)
Key sources of development
Social learning and example: source of this broadens over time from family to peers to society Action Self-reflection, although some question introspection as a viable method (e.g. Gadamer) Cognitive vs. emotional change (Damasio)

Development provoked by opening/closing events

Jaspers: boundary situations Searle: nonfamiliar experiences

Process (cont.)
Key problem: development can be positive or negative, depending in part on individual plasticity and resilience

Theoretical Systems
Psychodynamic theories
Based on psychodynamic views of personality and development; tend to be descriptive, content focused Stages are based on the following assumptions
defined by linear/chronological progression everyone goes through all the stages stages are in the same order for everyone each stage has certain primary tasks or issues no stage better than another

Examples: Erikson, Vaillant, Levinson

Theoretical Systems (cont.)

Neo-Piagetian
Emphasize cognitive development; try to be more explanatory, process focused Stages based on the following assumptions
defined by hierarchical progression not everyone goes through all the stages order may vary, people jump back and forth each stage has certain characteristics some stages more advanced (better?) than others

Examples: Kohlberg, Kegan, Fowler; Maslow

Psychodynamic Theories Erik Erikson and Daniel Levinson

Erikson: Definitions
Crisis--"a set of stresses and strains that force a person to confront a basic life issue"; both internal and external
Crisis can be resolved (+ or -), or ignored How crisis resolved affects later stages Senses that are developed are largely unconscious

Erikson: Definitions (cont)

Ego identity--"a conviction that the ego is learning effective steps toward a tangible collective future, that it is developing a defined ego within a social reality"--with
Conscious sense of individual identity Continuity of personal character over time with the self and others Ego synthesis Inner solidarity with group ideals and identity

Erikson: Definitions (cont)

Health--outcome of crises promote
increased sense of inner unity good judgment increased capacity "to do well" according to the standards of significant others health is culturally relative

Eriksons Theory
Stage theory of development Each stage has a primary crisis or task The central feature of each task is also worked on at other stages, but is not the central feature of the stage

Erikson Stages: Childhood

1. Infancy--age 0-2: trust vs mistrust
formation of a sense of sameness and continuity

2. Toddlerhood--age 2-4: autonomy vs shame and doubt

"self-control without a loss of self-esteem"

3. Early School--age 5-7: initiative vs guilt

is it all right for the child to have their own goals conscience develops during this period (cf. Kohlberg)

4. Middle School--age 8-12: industry vs inferiority

focus is on accomplishment in tasks

Erikson Stages: Adulthood

5. Adolescence--age 13-22: identity vs role confusion
a critical stage determined by preceding stages and affecting subsequent stages main tasks
formation of occupation goals, other beliefs and values separation from parents

lack of occupational identity most disturbing Identity formation

develops out of a series of identifications gains strength from recognition of real accomplishment (people are not fooled) also needs some freedom of expression to develop

Erikson Stages (cont)

6. Early adulthood--age 23-30: intimacy vs isolation
marriage, family formation of mature adult friendships and involvement with others

7. Middle adulthood--age 31-50: generativity vs stagnation

goal is development of productivity and creativity key accomplishment is passing on knowledge and skills, training of next generation; becoming a mentor

Erikson Stages (cont)

8. Later adulthood--age 51 on: ego integrity vs despair
development of mature ideas about the meaning of life and death key task is life review--has the person had a good life, accomplished their goals, lived an authentic life

Erikson Stages and Identity

1. Infancy (trust): Time perspective vs time diffusion 2. Toddlerhood (autonomy): Self-certainty vs identity consciousness 3. Early School (initiative): Role experimentation vs negative identity 4. Middle School (industry): Anticipation of achievement vs work paralysis

Stages and Identity (cont)

5. Adolescence (identity): Identity vs identity diffusion 6. Early Adulthood (intimacy): Sexual identity vs bisexual diffusion 7. Middle Adulthood (generativity): Leadership polarization vs authority diffusion 8. Later Adulthood (integrity): Ideological polarization vs diffusion of ideals

Levinson: Stages
Early Adulthood (17-40)
Early adult transition (17-22) Entering the Adult World (22-28) Age 30 Transition (28-33) Settling Down (33-40) Midlife Transition (40-45) Entering Middle Adulthood (45-50) Age 50 Transition (50-55) Culmination of Middle Adulthood (55-60)

Middle Adulthood (40-60)

Late Adulthood (60-)

Levinson: Early Adulthood

Early adult transition (17-22)
moving out of pre-adult world, reforming relationships explore adult world; consolidate initial adult identity

Entering the Adult World (22-28)

explore possibilities, create a stable life structure; these are antithetical and difficult to balance

Levinson: Early Adulthood (cont)

Age 30 Transition (28-33)
alterations in the initial life structure established at the beginning of young adulthood beginning of a sense of urgency--changes must be made soon can be easy and gradual or traumatic

Settling Down (33-40)

tries to establish a niche in society, develop competence and become valued attempts to progress

Becoming Ones Own Man (36-40)

attempts to speak with more authority, gain influence

Levinson: Middle Adulthood

Midlife Transition (40-45)
Modifying the dream; beginning of work on resolution of 4 midlife individuation polarities:
Young/Old Destruction/Creation Masculine/Feminine Attachment/Separateness

Working out affected by status at age 40

Advancing within stable life structure Serious failure of decline within stable structure Breaking out Advancement that produces change in structure Unstable life structure

Levinson: Middle Adulthood (cont.)

Entering Middle Adulthood (45-50) Age 50 Transition (50-55) Culmination of Middle Adulthood (55-60) Late Adult Transition (60-65)

Neo-Piagetian Theories

Kegan: Basic Concepts

Kegan constructive-developmental, neoPiagetian egothe zone of mediation where meaning is made or organized, which he equates with self, person organization of meaning requires physical, social and survival (practice) activities Coherence of the organism the underlying goal

Kegan: Basic Concepts (cont.)

adaptation the master notion in personality an active process of increasingly organizing the relationship of the self to the environment though differentiations and integrations the way in which the person is settling the issues of what is self and what is other essentially defines the underlying logic (or psychologic) of the persons meanings

Kegan: Developmental Process

Development a series of differentiations and reintegrations that create new subjectivities
Piaget-decentration and recentration ( loss and recovery of a center) with new subject-object balance (e.g. concrete operations) Process of balance-imbalance-new balance Finding and losing

Different stages involve different ways of doing reciprocities, of what is self and what is other Cognition and affect come from this process

Kegan: Process (con.t)

Process a social process
Two greatest yearnings in human experienceyearning to be included, yearning to be independent; Our experience of this fundamental ambivalence may be our experience of the unitary, restless, creative motion of life itself. Cf. Kohlberg, who extended Piaget in personal construction of the social world

Correspondence with object relations theory

Objectthat which has been differentiated Relationsthat which is integrated Narcissismthe emotion of nondifferentiation between self and non-self

Kegan: Supporting Environment

Holding/Bridging environments
life has a succession of holding environments (cf. Winnicott) that occur in an expectable sequence (cf. Erikson) functions of culture of embeddedness holding on and letting go every development seems to require its own culture cultures that support transition beyond the institutional are rare necessary cultures
bridging environment doesnt hold hands culture can affect the kinds of support available for transitions to higher levels

Kegan: Transitions
in transitional differentiation, I must for a time be not-me before I can reappropriate that old me as the new object of a new self
disequilibrium a crisis of meaning and identity

we feel our integration is best, so loss is difficult

differentiation involves disappointment and disillusionment, loss pain and ecstasy can coexist during transitions
pain is about the resistance to the motion of life

Kegan: Transitions (cont.)

when assimilation occurs, contradictory facts are rejected; this is the basis of defense mechanisms men more differentiation oriented, women more inclusion oriented

Kegan: Stages of Integration

At stage 1 Impulsive Balance I am my impulses At stage 2 Imperial Balance I am my needs At stage 3 Interpersonal Balance there is no self independent of other people liking.
Women tend to remain at stage 3?

At stage 4 Institutional Balance, self identified with the organization (p. 101) At stage 5 Interindividual Balance self is separated from all the above

Kegan: Stages (cont.)

every developmental balance involves an illusion, a built-in falsehood or subjectivity which forms the seeds of its own undoing
e.g. strength of stage 4 autonomy weakness embeddedness in autonomy as transition begins, another voice appears

Progress is a helix (spiral) with issues being reencountered in an evovled manner Stage 5, postformal thought that looks for tension; first shift in which there is a self-conscious self to be reflected upon