Galileos Method Non-Uniform Motion

John Hopkins

RACING BALLS

Which ball reaches the end of the track first?

Ball on straight track Ball on bent track Neither, its a tie!

John Hopkins

Non Uniform Motion

Examination of Leslie's swim
Timers stationed at approx. 4.6 m intervals along a pool who record the time it takes Leslie to pass them.

Overall average speed.

Position (m) 0.0 4.6 9.1 Where did Leslie have her greatest speed? 13.7 Unless you can do a great number of calculations very 18.3 quickly, the answer may take some time to figure out. 21.5 Split times 27.4 32.0 First half speed V = (21.5 - 0)/(22 - 0) = 0.977 m/sec 36.7 Second half speed V = (45.7 - 21.5)/(53 - 22) = .781 m/sec 41.2 45.7

Use the equation V = distance traveled/elapsed time V = (45.7 - 0) / (53 - 0) = .862 m/sec

Fortunately there is an easier method!

Time (s) 0.0 2.5 5.5 11.0 16.0 22.0 26.5 32.0 39.5 47.5 53.0
John Hopkins

Graph Interpretation
The part of the graph with the greatest slope represents the part of Leslie's swim where her speed was the greatest. Notice that the graph starts off very steep then trails off then has another steep part before finally trailing off again. Can you explain the second steep part of the graph?
Position (m)

Position vs Time
50.0 45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 Time (s) 40.0 50.0 60.0

We can see the turn and estimate the length of the pool by looking at the graph. We might not be able to spot this in just the data table alone.
John Hopkins

Instantaneous Speed
By breaking are swim into Her split speeds her the slopes of Notice that Leslie's the lines that speed is the time smaller and smaller end overall connect the points of her swim with the point slope we get a better intervals of the line that and d = 22.9 m andthe end sec. connects t = 22.0 better representation of her points of her swim. actual swim. not very TheseThis line is a better sense lines give indicative of was for what her swim her really like. swim.
Position vs Time
50.0 45.0 40.0
Position (m) Position (m) Position(m)

35.0 30.0 25.0

20.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 30.0 40.0 Time (s) Time (s) 50.0 50.0 60.0 60.0

If the time interval is infinitesimally small we refer to the speed computed as the instantaneous speed; and is represented by the equation:

John Hopkins

Example
In this equation Vinst refers to the speed at a particular instant of time and lim t->0 means to limit the time interval to a value very close to zero - but not equal to zero.
Position vs Time

Example - find Leslie's speed at t = 10 sec.

50.0

Position (m)

On the graph I would select two point that are very close to the 10 sec mark (perhaps at t = 9.5 and t = 10.5)

45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 Time (s) 40.0 50.0 60.0

Next I need to estimate the distance coordinates for these times. (Perhaps d = 11 m with t = 9.5 and d = 13 with t = 10.5)
Now use the two point slope formula that were are accustomed to using, i.e. d/t = v. Hence v(at 10 sec) = (13 - 11)/(10.5 - 9.5) = 2 m/sec.

The procedure can be repeated for as many instances as we need or desire - the more often we do this the better will be our understanding of the entire swim This concept, of instantaneous speed, can be extended and developed into the fundamental theorem of calculus. Watch for it in your math class! Your math class will have the time to develop quicker and easier techniques for finding the limit. However, the technique that I've outlined above will suffice for this course.
John Hopkins

Galileos Observation
The Greeks view of motion - Accepted unchallenged for over 2000 years
Based upon common sense.
Four terrestrial elements and their placement could account for all natural motion Violent motion needed a force to cause it. (Since the earth itself was so large, and already in its natural position, they could imagine no force large enough to move it. Hence the earth in their mind had to be at rest)

Hidden in their logic was the idea that an object composed of twice as much "earth" as another object would seek its natural position twice as fast as another object that might be partly composed of "air". This could never have been tested.
John Hopkins

It All Falls Apart

Galileo noticed this discrepancy while watching a chandelier swinging in a breeze.
The chandelier was made of many small pieces of glass attached to many larger pieces of glass. If Aristotle was right, the chandelier should have pulled itself apart on the first swing. (The larger pieces would have traveled faster than the smaller ones.)

Galileo timed the swinging of various parts (with his pulse) and found them to be the same.
He wrote that he became so excited with his discovery that he had to quit timing due to the quickening of his pulse.
John Hopkins

Uniform Acceleration
Galileo could not explain the motion of a freely falling object. The motion occurred too fast for the technology of his day to measure. He assumed that an object that falls gains its' speed in the most simple manner possible, i.e. Equal increments of speed are gained in equal increments of time - Uniform Acceleration This can be represented by an equation to compute the average acceleration:

a v

(v f vi )

(t f ti )

Note that this equation and the definition of uniform acceleration closely parallel the equation for uniform speed and its definition.

Thus the slope of a speed versus time graph is the acceleration

John Hopkins

The Three Motions

There is a similarity and a possible connection between the types of motion that is suggested by the graphs.

John Hopkins

Speed vs time graphs

Lets examine the speed vs time graph for an object traveling at constant speed of 3 m/s for 8 s. In 2 seconds the object travels: d = v*t = 6 m The area of the rectangle under the graph at 2 seconds is A = l*w = 3*2 = 6 the same as the distance traveled

The distance that it travels in 8 seconds is d = t*v = 24 m which is equal to the area under the graph at 8 seconds
John Hopkins

Advantage to Area under the graph

An object is traveling at 2 m/s and then increases its speed by one m/s each second for 4 seconds until it is traveling at 6 m/s. It then travels at 6 m/s for the next 4 seconds. How far has it traveled? d = AT = A1+A2+A3 =24 + 8 + 8 d = 40m
John Hopkins

A3 = *4*4 =8m

A1 = 4*6 = 24 m

A2 = 4*2 =8m

Merton Mean Speed Rule

An object whose speed in increasing 2 m/s every second travels for 8 seconds. How far did it go? Area under the graph is A = 8*16 = 64 m NOTICE, thats the same as if it traveled at the average speed for the entire time vi v f vavet t or, 2 vi v f vave 2
John Hopkins

Area under the graph is A = 8*8 = 64 m

How far?
vave vi v f 2 6 18 vave 12 2

d vave t d 12 8 d 96
John Hopkins

DONT USE
The Merton Mean Speed Rule only works when the change in speed is constant and only during the time period when the speed is changing at this constant rate, Were looking for expressions that work all of the time. The MMSR is too particular to be of much use and I dont encourage you to use it. We will make one use of this once in the near future and then never return to it. Youre welcome to use it but please be aware of the restrictions of when it will work for you and when it will not.

John Hopkins

His Approach
Galileo had to test his hypothesis that objects gain equal amounts of speed in equal time periods.
The technology of his day would not allow him to measure the very small time intervals associated with falling objects
Also, to test the equation directly would entail measuring two instantaneous speeds.
To this day we cannot measure even one instantaneous speed we can only calculate it.

Galileo would need to derive an indirect test - i.e. he would have to test a consequence of his hypothesis instead of the hypothesis itself. (This is quite common in science)
John Hopkins

Algebra
Galileo knew that if an object uniformly increased its' speed then the average speed would be midway between the initial and final speeds i.e
vave = (vf + v i)/2
This is known as the Merton Theorem or Merton Rule

From the work that had been completed on uniform motion: vave = (df - di)/(tf - t i) His hypothesis: aave = (vf - vi)/(tf - t i)
John Hopkins

The Ramp Experiment

The ramp experiment:
1. A ball is rolled from rest down a ramp. 2. Distance is measured from the point of release. 3. Time is measured from the instant of release.

vave = (vf) /2 vave = (df )/(tf ) aave = (vf )/(tf )

Combining top two eq gives: vf = 2 df /(tf ) Substituting this into 3rd equation yields: df = 1/2atf2

vi = 0 ti = 0 di= 0

This equation can be tested since it involves only measuring distances and times. If a is uniform (or constant) as Galileo hypothesized, what would a graph of d versus t look like? Answer - parabola (let y = d, x = t, k = 1/2a) Then equation looks like y = kx2
John Hopkins

Some algebra
vave vave a v f vi 2 d f di
v f vi d f di
(vi at ) vi d f d i 2 t

t v f vi t

2 t v f vi at

2vi at d f d i or... 2 t

vi

at

d f di t

or...

vi t 1 2 at 2 d f di

d f di vi t 2 at
1
(Also works all of the time)

John Hopkins

The Kinematic Expressions

Basic Definitions (work all of the time)
vave a d f di t v f vi t

Special Rule (Does NOT work all of the time)

vave

v f vi 2

Derived Expressions (work all of the time)

d f di vi t 12 at 2

v f vi 2ad
2 2

Only works when the acceleration is constant or the object travels at each of the two speeds for the same amount of time.

John Hopkins