Lecture 9 The Age of Reforms.

The Tanzimat Period

The Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th c. End of 18th c. decentralization, the sultan had little authority beyond Istanbul Power in the provinces in the hands of notables and strong semi-independent lords or families North African provinces Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli of Barbary no direct Ottoman control from the very beginning; 18th c. local strongmen effectively in control Egypt 18th c. following the re-emergence of the Mamluks; competition and hostility among strong Mamluk households; the Qazdaghli household gained prominence and effectively assumed control of Egypt in spite of the presence of an Ottoman governor

 1798 Napoleons short-lived invasion of Egypt Ottoman control weakened even further Egypt effectively gone from Ottoman hands after Mehmed Ali established himself as the ruler of the province Mehmed Alis campaigns in other Ottoman lands 1830s, consequently he and his descendents recognized as hereditary rulers of Egypt
Iraq in the hands of mamluk households

Bonaparte and his chief of staff in Egypt, painting by Jean-Lon Grme, 1863

Arab peninsula even weaker Ottoman control, Ottoman authority challenged by the Wahhabi movement

The Ayan Ayan plural of ayn something or someone special Rise to power of the ayan in the 18th c. initially local prominent families appointed to negotiate and manage the collection of taxes by the end of the 18th c. in charge of various other duties, such as provisioning, recruitment of troops during wars, security of the area 1792-1812 many ayan had expanded their domains and established large virtually autonomous domains Rumeli and Anatolia divided into smaller domains ruled by ayan families

Arab provinces local notables worked within the framework of the Ottoman state al-Azm family of Damascus; the only exception Jezzar Ahmed Pasha

Osman Pazvantolu of Vidin, 1758-1807 one of the most prominent ayan Alliance with janissaries expelled from Serbia and other rebels to establish his own control Efforts to introduce reforms inspired by practices during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent in order to reinvigorate local institutions Popular with both local Muslims and Christians Central control over the area around Vidin established in 1812

The mosque of Pazvantolu in Vidin

Beginning of Ottoman Reforms end of 18th c. Ottoman ruling circles divided into two camps regarding the direction of reform Return to the practices of the golden age of Suleyman the Magnificent Introduction of reforms following the European pattern; supporters of the argument pointed to the successes of Russia; the supporters of this argument prevailed First reforms conducted in the military sphere establishment of higher military schools with European instructors (e.g. Royal College of Naval Engineering in 1773) More comprehensive reforms under sultan Selim III (1789-1807) Attempts to establish a regular army resented by the janissaries, eventually led to Selim IIIs deposition and execution Economic and provincial administration reforms limited First alliances with European powers France (1802), Russia (1805)

From Fragmentation to Centralization: the Reforms of Mahmud II (1808-1839)

The Triumph of Decentralization and Ayan (Notable) Power 1808 Mahmud II (1808-1839) comes to power with the help of one of the most powerful notables Alemdar Mustafa Pasha in Russe, and discontent Ottoman troops 1808 Deed of Agreement notables to protect the sultan, guarantee each others safety and oversee administrative reforms; in return the sultan would recognize their power Continuation of reforms instituted during the previous period

Reforms of Mahmud II 1826 the Auspicious Event destruction of the janissary corps following a janissary uprising Military affairs under central control establishment of a new regular army contingent the Victorious Muhammedan Troops and disbanding of provincial armies

Mahmud II (1808-1839) in western style clothes

 Reduction of the power of the ulema who had traditionally supported the janissaries; from 1820s until 1908 Ottoman politics negotiated between the bureaucracy and the palace Centralization and reducing the power of the ayan (notables) their descendents incorporated into the Ottoman bureaucracy and provincial government (e.g. al-Azm family of Damascus), military actions against the more resilient ones combined with forced resettlement Establishment of control over peripheral areas end of Mamluk rule in Baghdad Conduct of a census in the provinces in order to establish control more easily and determine sources of revenue 1830-1831 Reform of the government establishment of ministries, the office of the grand vizier became the office of the prime minister Establishment of new schools and revitalization of older ones the main purpose was to train state officials and bureaucrats in order to implement reforms in the Empire; consequence the reforms of the subsequent Tanzimat period were conducted by the bureaucrats Westernization e.g. adoption of western style dress by the army, the sultan and the bureaucracy

Emergence of nationalism and separatist movements among the Empires diverse populations, first among non-Muslims, later among Muslim groups Serbian revolution, 1804-1835 initially began as a revolt motivated by economic grievances but grew into a nationalist uprising; 1835 establishment of an autonomous Serbian state The Greek revolt and war of independence, 1821-1831 sympathy in Europe for the Greek cause; just like Greek nationalists many Europeans equated the contemporary Greek nation with classical Greece; 1833 establishment of an independent Greek state 1840s onwards rise of Bulgarian nationalism initially cultural against the Greeks, later political against the Ottoman authorities Increasing European/Great Power concern with the fate of Christian populations in the Ottoman Empire, occasionally a pretext for their expansionist ambitions

Eugne Delacroix, Massacre of Chios (1824) is an example of European views and attitudes towards the Greek revolt and Ottoman measures to suppress it

The Tanzimat, 1839-1876 November 3, 1839 Rose Chamber Edict (Hatt- erif of Glhane launched the Tanzimat period Promised the enactment of law guaranteeing the life, property and honor of all Ottoman subjects, outlawed execution without trial and confiscation of property, envisioned the abolition of taxfarming and the introduction of military conscription Ottoman bureaucracy prominent in drafting, codifying and implementing the reforms of this period

Sultan Abdlmejid I (1839-1861)

Sultan Abdlaziz (1861-1876)

Ottomanism - encouragement of the adoption of a supra-national identity among all Ottoman subjects regardless of religion and nationality More secular conception of the state Islam was no longer the primary legitimizing principle for the Ottoman Empire Law the sharia was not abolished sharia courts continued to function alongside new civil courts; the Mejelle a compendium of Islamic law was used in the new civil courts

The ulema felt threatened because the reforms undermined its position of authority, resented the reforms

The Tanzimat reforms and the non-Muslims Non-Muslim clergy also felt threatened just like the ulema The reforms opened the way for the organization of representative assemblies within the non-Muslim communities who challenged the authority of the clergy Zimmi no longer used; non-Muslim Ottoman used instead Appointment of non-Muslims to various bureaucratic positions Formalization of the millet system creation of hierarchical religious communities with their leader representing them to the Ottoman government 1856 Reform Edict extended equal rights to the non-Muslims in all spheres of life Resentment on the part of many Muslims, as well as on the part of the Greek Orthodox patriarchate, which saw the reforms as undermining its privileged position in the Empire Non-Muslim communities unhappy with the Tanzimat reforms, they preferred the preservation of the bilateral relations between the community and the sultan

 Abolition of the jizye, however, soon after the tax was re-introduced in practice as a military service exemption tax Ottomanism was popular among certain non-Muslim elite circles e.g. nonMuslim bureaucrats and merchants; however, the majority of non-Muslim subjects regarded it as an attempt for Turkification

Ottoman foreign policy during the Tanzimat and the Crimean War, 1853-1856 Ottoman alliance with Britain against Russia the cornerstone of foreign policy during the Tanzimat First coalition in which the Ottomans fought alongside European powers After the Crimean war efforts to establish Ottoman-French alliance

A cartoon in the British Punch magazine, 1852

A consultation about the state of Turkey, 1853 Punch magazine cartoon

Some of the consequences of the Crimean War for the Ottoman Empire Increasing influence of foreign ambassadors in Istanbul meddling in the internal affairs of the Ottoman state Emergence of pro-British and proRussian factions in the Ottoman bureaucracy and government Stratford Canning, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, intervened most actively in Ottoman state affairs, demanding the appointment and dismissal of state officials; nicknamed Little Sultan

Count Nicholas Ignatiev, Russian ambassador to Istanbul, 1864-1876

Count Nicholas Ignatiev was one of the most prominent Russian ambassadors to the Ottoman Empire Architect of the 1878 San Stefano treaty Influence of the pro-Russian faction in Ottoman politics in 1870-1875

Impact of the Crimean war on Ottoman reforms European pressure for more reforms favoring the Christians 1856 Imperial Edict (Hatt- Hmayun) granted even more rights to Ottoman non-Muslim subjects Challenges to Ottoman territorial integrity and unrest in the provinces Uprisings in Nish (1841) and Vidin (1849-50) against Ottoman economic measures; consequently tax-farming continued 1860 outbreak of a civil war in Lebanon initially between Druze and Maronites, later involved other Muslims; unrest spread to Damascus and resulted in Muslim attacks of the Christians in the city; 1861 Lebanon granted a special statute of self-rule Revolt in Crete, 1868 a special statute of self-rule granted to the island

Provincial administration Efforts for further centralization Introduction of standard administration throughout all Ottoman provinces Establishment of provincial councils that included non-Muslim representatives in areas with large non-Muslim populations Measures to control the Muslim periphery punitive actions against restless Albanian and Kurdish tribes; in other regions e.g. Kuwait local rulers were co-opted in the Ottoman administration Economy Attempts to abolish tax-farming came to a naught and the practice continued until 1908 Opposition to the attempts to conduct land-surveys to determine more sources of revenue and make taxation more efficient Monetarization of the economy taxes paid in cash, state officials received salaries Introduction of paper money only limited success

 Borrowing first internal then foreign to patch the budget deficits and finance the reforms; only a small portion of the money invested in infrastructure development, a lot of funds went to financing projects that would demonstrate to the outside world Ottoman aspirations towards westernization 1875 the Ottoman Empire defaulted on its foreign debt Industrialization only limited success Cultural and intellectual changes Establishment of journals and development of Ottoman public opinion Literature and culture inspiration from western forms and genres Theatre Alla Turca culture westernized lifestyle; popular mainly among smaller elite circles

Opposition to the Tanzimat reforms

The Young Ottomanst a group of intellectuals and former Ottoman bureaucrats established a secret society in 1865 Expelled by the Ottoman authorities to Europe, some returned in 1871 Regarded the Tanzimat as a capitulation to western demands, ended up in a tyranny of the bureaucracy The solution to the problems of the Ottoman Empire was introduction of a parliament; according to them, Islam had provisions for representative government, no need to look at European examples Ottoman borrowing from Europe should be limited to science and industry

Namik Kemal (1840-1888) one of the most prominent Young Ottomans and Ottoman writers

The Legacy of the Tanzimat Reforms Dualism and tension in Ottoman institutions, policies and culture Idea of Ottomanism clashed with the increasing autonomy of the various religious communities Bureaucratic centralization conflicted with political fragmentation Reform from top down conflicted with principles of representation Sharia courts coexisted alongside civil courts New forms of cultural expression coexisted along with older ones Tanzimat culture did not influence large segments of Ottoman society, just the elites in the cities Opposition to reforms the well-meaning introduction of certain reforms would invariably offend someone

More important terms Ayan Auspicious Event Rose Chamber Edict (Hatt- erif of Glhane) Tanzimat Reform Edict of 1856 Crimean War Young Ottomans