Lecture Outline

The Endocrine System

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Endocrine Glands o o

Endocrine glands are ductless Secrete hormones

Chemical signals that influence:
Metabolism Growth and development Homeostasis

Categories of hormones
Peptides (proteins, glycoproteins, and modified amino acids) most hormones Steroid hormones
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Table 10.1 cont

Endocrine Glands o

How Hormones Function

Second messenger system
Peptide hormone binds to a receptor protein on the plasma membrane Peptide hormone (first messenger) activates a second messenger (cyclic AMP and calcium) Second messenger sets in motion an enzyme cascade that leads to a cellular response
Change in cellular behavior Formation of an end product that leaves the cell
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Fig. 10.2 Action of a peptide hormone

Animation: How Intracellular Receptors Regulate Gene Transcription

Endocrine Glands

Intracellular mechanism of hormone function

Steroid hormones (lipids) diffuse across the plasma membrane Once inside the cell, steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins Hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA, activating particular genes Gene activation leads to production of cellular enzymes that cause cellular changes
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Fig. 10.3 Action of a steroid hormone

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Animation: Mechanism of Steroid Hormone Action

Endocrine Glands
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Hormone Control
Many hormones affect concentrations of certain substances in the blood Other hormones are involved in normal function of various organs Release of hormones controlled by one or more of the following:

The nervous system The action of other hormones Glands response directly when change in the internal environment (humoral stimulus) Negative feedback mechanisms
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Control of Hormonal Secretions

primarily controlled by negative feedback mechanism

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Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland o

Hypothalamus
Controls secretions of the pituitary gland Neurosecretory cells produce
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Oxytocin

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Pituitary Gland Control

Hypothalamic releasing hormones stimulate cells of anterior pituitary to release hormones Nerve impulses from hypothalamus stimulate nerve endings in the posterior pituitary gland to release hormones

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Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

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Posterior pituitary
Stores hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin ADH (vasopressin)
Released when neurons in the hypothalamus detect that the blood is too concentrated with salt Causes more water to be reabsorbed into kidney capillaries Raises blood pressure by vasoconstriction of blood vessels Diabetes insipidus results from the inability to produce ADH

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Regulation of ADH
Blood is concentrated with salt /low blood pressure

Negative Feedback Mechanism

Neurons in Hypothalamus (nervous control)

Posterior Pituitary Gland releases Antidiuretic Hormone

Kidney

Blood vessels

Reabsorption of water

-Vasoconstriction of blood vessels -Increase blood pressure

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Animation: Hormonal Communication

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

Oxytocin
Causes uterine contraction during childbirth Causes milk letdown when a baby is nursing Release of oxytocin is controlled by positive feedback

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Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland o

Anterior pituitary
Controlled by hypothalamic hormones Produces hormones that affect other glands
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Gonadotropic hormones

Produce hormones that do not affect the endocrine system

Prolactin (PRL) Growth hormone (GH)
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Fig 10.4

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Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

Effects of growth hormone

Affects the height of an individual Pituitary dwarfism results if too little GH is produced during childhood If too much GH is produced during childhood, a person can become a giant Acromegaly results when too much GH is secreted in adulthood

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Thyroid and Parathyroid o

Thyroid Gland
Two forms of thyroid hormone
Triiodothyronine (T3) contains 3 iodine atoms Thyroxine (T4) contains 4 iodine atoms

Effects of thyroid hormone

Increase the metabolic rate Stimulate all cells of the body

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Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretions

( ) () Thyrotropin- releasing Fig 10.4 hormone (TRH)

() Thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH)

( )

T3, T4
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Thyroid and Parathyroid

Simple goiter

Often caused by a lack of iodine Thyroid enlarges in response to constant stimulation by the anterior pituitary

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Thyroid and Parathyroid

Congenital hypothyroidism

Thyroid fails to develop properly Undersecretion of thyroid hormone Individuals are short and stocky Hypothyroidism in adults Characterized by
Lethargy Weight gain Loss of hair Slower pulse rate Lowered body temperature Thick and puffy skin

Myxedema

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Thyroid and Parathyroid

Hyperthyroidism (Graves Disease)

Oversecretion of thyroid hormone Exophthalmic goiter forms

Edema in eye socket tissues Swelling of the muscles that move the eyes

Symptoms include
Hyperactivity Nervousness and irritability Insomnia

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Thyroid and Parathyroid

Calcitonin
Helps control blood calcium levels Secreted when the blood calcium levels rise Brings about the deposit of calcium in the bones

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Thyroid and Parathyroid

Parathyroid Glands
Posterior surface of the thyroid gland Produces parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Causes blood phosphate (HPO42-) level to decrease Causes blood calcium (Ca2+) level to increase
Promotes the release of calcium from the bones Promotes the reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys

Activates vitamin D in the kidneys, which stimulates the reabsorption of calcium from the intestines Hypocalcemic tetany results when there is insufficient secretion of PTH

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Parathyroid Hormone
Mechanism by which PTH promotes calcium absorption in the intestine

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Adrenal Glands o

Adrenal Medulla
Inner portion Under nervous control Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) Causes fight or flight responses Provide a short-term response to stress
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Adrenal Glands o

Adrenal Cortex
Outer portion 3 layers, each produces a different set of hormones Under the control of ACTH Hormones
Provide a long-term response to stress Mineralcorticoids Glucocorticoids Male and female sex hormones

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Fig 10.10 Adrenal glands. Adrenal medulla & Adrenal cortex under control of the hypothalamus and respond to stress

Left: Adrenal medulla provides a rapid but short-term stress response

Right: Adrenal cortex provides a slower but 35 long-term stress response

Adrenal Glands

Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Raises the blood glucose level in at least 2 ways:
Promotes the breakdown of muscle proteins to amino acids which pass to the bloodstream. Liver then converts excess amino acids to glucose. Promotes the metabolism of fatty acids instead of carbohydrates as spares glucose for the brain

Counteracts the inflammatory response and can relieve swelling and pain Can also make a person susceptible to injury and infection
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Adrenal Glands

Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)
Targets the kidney Promotes renal absorption of sodium and water Promotes renal excretion of potassium Aldosterone secretion is controlled by: ACTH (from anterior pituitary gland) Renin-Angiotensin mechanism

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ACTH is not the primary controller for aldosterone secretion Renin-Angiotensin mechanism stimulates aldosterone secretion when the blood sodium level and blood pressure are low Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system raises blood pressure in two ways:
Angiotensin II constricts arterioles Aldosterone causes the kidneys to reabsorb sodium

Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is antagonistic to aldosterone

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Adrenal Glands

Malfunction of the Adrenal Cortex

Addison Disease
Hyposecretion of adrenal cortex hormones Excessive (but ineffective) ACTH causes bronzing of the skin Because glucose cannot be replenished without cortisol, individuals are susceptible to infection Lack of aldosterone results in the development of low blood pressure and possibly severe dehydration

Cushing Syndrome
Hypersecretion of adrenal cortex hormones Tendency towards diabetes mellitus Excess aldosterone leads to hypertension

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Pancreas o

Composed of two types of tissue

Exocrine secretes digestive juices Endocrine tissue (pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans) produces:
Insulin

Secreted when blood glucose level is high Stimulates the uptake of glucose by most body cells

Glucagon
Secreted when blood glucose levels are low Targets liver and adipose tissue Stimulates liver to break down glycogen to glucose
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Pancreas o

Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin-sensitive body cells are unable to take up and/or metabolize glucose Blood glucose level is elevated (hyperglycemia) Symptoms:
Polyphagia extreme hunger Glycosuria glucose in the urine Polyuria excessive water loss through urine Polydipsia extreme thirst

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Pancreas

Two forms of diabetes mellitus

Type I insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

Pancreas does not produce insulin Immune cells destroy the pancreatic islets

Type II non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

Normal or elevated amounts of insulin are present in the blood Receptors on the cells do not respond to insulin

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Other Endocrine Glands o

Testes and ovaries

Testes produce androgens (testosterone) Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone Secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus and the pituitary

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Other Endocrine Glands

Androgens
Increased testosterone secretion during puberty stimulates the growth of the penis and the testes Brings about and maintains the male secondary sex characteristics

Facial, axillary, and pubic hair Enlargement of larynx and the vocal cords Muscular strength

Stimulates oil and sweat glands of the skin

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Other Endocrine Glands

Estrogen and Progesterone

Required for breast development Regulation of the uterine cycle Estrogens

Stimulate the growth of the uterus and the vagina during puberty Necessary for egg maturation Responsible for secondary sex characteristics Female body hair Fat distribution

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Other Endocrine Glands o

Thymus Gland
Most active during childhood Transforms lymphocytes into thymusderived lymphocytes (T-lymphocytes) Epithelial cells secrete hormones called thymosins

Pineal Gland
Located in the brain Produces the hormone melatonin Melatonin is involved in daily sleepwake cycle
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Other Endocrine Glands o

Hormones from Other Tissues

Leptin
Produced by adipose tissue Signals satiety in hypothalamus

Growth Factors stimulate cell division and mitosis

Granulocyte and macrophage colonystimulating factor Platelet-derived growth factor Epidermal growth factor and nerve growth factor Tumor angiogenesis factor
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Other Endocrine Glands

Prostaglandins
Potent chemical signals Act locally Some effects of prostaglandins include:
Uterine contractions Mediate the effects of pyrogens Reduce gastric secretion Lower blood pressure Inhibit platelet aggregation

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The Importance of Chemical Signals o Cells and organs communicate with one another using chemical signals Chemical signals between individuals
Called pheromones Humans produce airborne chemicals from a variety of areas

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Effects of Aging o

Thyroid disorders
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism

Diabetes

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Homeostasis o The endocrine system and the nervous system work together to maintain homeostasis The endocrine system helps regulate the following:
Digestion Fuel metabolism Blood pressure and volume Calcium balance Response to the external environment 57