Geography of Microwave Survey-20080226-A

HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO., LTD.
Huawei Confidential
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FIELD TELECOMMUNICATION SURVEY
Geography of Microwave Survey
HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO., LTD. Huawei Confidential Page 2
Contents
1) Topography
- Map representation
- Geographical coordinates
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Profiles / Clearance criteria guidelines
- Reflection
3) GPS
- The various types of GPS
- GeoExplorer user's guide
4) Grounding system

Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

Map reading
Collect all the maps available, preferably 1/50 000 (1/24 000 for North
America).
In some circumstances 1/200 000 maps will also be useful.

Scale

1/200 000 1 mm = 200 m
1/50 000 1 mm = 50 m
1/24 000 1 mm = 24 m1
1/10 000 1 mm = 10 m
1/ 5 000 1 mm = 5 m
TOPOGRAPHY
Map representation
TOPOGRAPHY
Image of the earth surface, watched from particular point of view and
projected on to a tangent plane on the earth surface

Types of projections
MERCATOR (Grard Kremer alias)
LAMBERT

Map representation
Cylindrical projection.
The projection surface is a cylinder which is tangential or secant to the
earth's model.
TOPOGRAPHY
Example: UTM projection is divided of 60 zones of 6 in longitude
France is on 3 zones: zone 31 30 32
Map representation
Direct cylindrical projection Oblique cylindrical projection
Transverse cylindrical projection
Conical projection.
The projection surface is a cone tangent or secant to the earth's model.
TOPOGRAPHY
Example: LAMBERT projection is divided into 4 zones
LAMBERT I - II - III - IV or LAMBERT II extended which covers all the
country.
Map representation
Tangent conic presentation Secant conic presentation
TOPOGRAPHY
For map representation, the ellipsoid closest to the Geoid of the area
to be represented will be used. For France, we'll use clarke 1880
ellipsoid lambert conformal map projection. For Africa we'll use clark
1866 ellipsoid

Ellipsoid is a mathematical model to define the earth surface

Geoid is a mathematical model to which coincides with mean sea level
extended to all continents.
(Geoid conventionnally coincides with altitude zero)
Datums: NAD 27, NAD 83, Old Hawaiian (for North America)
Map representation
Geoid
Earth surface
Ellipsoid
TOPOGRAPHY
Date of creation and update
Ellipsoid
Map representation
TOPOGRAPHY
Magnetic variation
Magnetic North is the only one which can be measured (compass).

Geographic north is the north on the map.

An angle measured from magnetic north can be reported on a map if
the variation is known.

Its possible to Check the magnetic variation via the internet:

www.geolab.nrcan.gc.ca/geomag/e_cgrf.html

www.ngdc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/seg/gmag/fldsnth1.pl
Map representation
When Magnetic variation decreases, it means
it's getting closer to geographic North - it varies
according to geographic areas on earth - it is
more important near the poles.
247'
Magnetic North
Geographic North
Example of indication on IGN France map
Magnetic variation coincides with the middle of
the sheet on 1st January 1990 it decreases
every year by 8'.
TOPOGRAPHY
Magnetic variation
Map representation
MN
GN
7
237/MN
230/GN
TOPOGRAPHY
Magnetic variation
Map representation
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

Latitude and longitude
On a single map, we can have two different projections.
The projections can be found in the maps legend.
Each map provides a legend that must be read.

Contour lines are essential to draw a profile.

Systematically check the contour intervals.
TOPOGRAPHY
Geographical coordinates
Each index contour line is accentuated Contour intervals: 10m
112m
TOPOGRAPHY
Enable to calculate geographic coordinates of any point on
earth thanks to abscissa and ordinate report

Earth circumference ~ 40000 km
40000 km / 360 = 111.111 km = 1
1 = 60' => 1.852km = 1' = 1 mile
1' = 60" => 31 m = 1"

AT EQUATOR LEVEL
TOPOGRAPHY
Origin of any map
W
E
LONG E
LAT S
LONG W
LAT S
LONG E
LAT N
LONG W
LAT N
GREENWICH MERIDIAN OR MERIDIAN 0 (zero)
N
S
TOPOGRAPHY
1cm
5mm
Cross with soft lead pencil
Pointing with hard pencil
TOPOGRAPHY
Site pointing
Coordinate calculation
1) Write out the point on the X and Y axes with a square and HARD PENCIL

2) Measure the mm. value of 300" and deduce the value of 1 second in xmm
longitude and ymm latitude

3) Measure the variation between the point written out and the origin
selected

4) Apply the rule of three

5) Add the calculated values to original values

DO NOT HESITATE TO DETAIL YOUR CALCULATIONS
degrees, ' minutes, " seconds
TOPOGRAPHY
TOPOGRAPHY
4805'
ymm
Latitude
y'mm
4800
Origin
200'
205'
X'mm
longitude
xmm
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT
hpa (hectopascal) = Meteorology
mmhg (millimeter of mercury) = Medical unit
mbar (millibar) = Old unit
bar = Industrial pressure
unit
===>
Altitude Pressure
TOPOGRAPHY
Altimetry
The altimeter is a barometer
TOPOGRAPHY
Altimetry
/ 1
1
1
1 m N
m
NEWTON
pa = =
Normal atmospheric pressure measured at standard point
Altitude m
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Pressure hpa
410
472
540
616
701
795
899
1013
Temp C
-30.5
-24
-17.5
-11
-4.5
2
8.5
15
TOPOGRAPHY
Altimetry
Map information
Origin of altitudes measured

Altimetry
The altimeter under forcasts altitude deviations under warm
temperatures and overforcats them under cold temperatures.
In winter it gives too high altitude and too low in summer
TOPOGRAPHY
Altimetry
Summer
4000 m measured in a summer day with a temperature of 0C:
+11C deviation compared with standard atmosphere
Applicable correction is: +11x4x4m = 176m Real altitude is 4176m

Winter
4000m measured in a winter day with a temperature of -20C: -
9C deviation compared with standard atmosphere
Applicable correction: -9x4x4m = -144m Real altitude is 3856m
Correction is of 4m per 1000m, and per deviation degree
compared with standard temperature at reading altitude with
deviation sign
TOPOGRAPHY
Altimetry
It is thus necessary to apply the so-called double measurement
procedure
2 altimeters are required
Mark a point on the map
Calibrate both altimeters on it
Reference altitude will be ckecked out at regular time slots, every 10'
for example

Altitude measurements will be performed during that time with the 2
nd

altimeter, indicating each time the measurement time.
Altitudes will be compared and correction applied
TOPOGRAPHY
Altimetry
Can be A geodetic point with hub
333
132
An altimetry point
Alt A
Reference
Alt B
Measurement
TOPOGRAPHY
Altimetry
Alt A
Reference
Alt B
Measurement
Report variations
every 10' or more
Fill in a sheet
Measure the points
and report measurement
times
TOPOGRAPHY
Reference
Altimetry
Alt A
Alt B
Origin
- 8:00 333
- 8:10 333
- 8:20 334
- 8:30 335
- 8:40 336
- 8:50 337
- 9:00 338
- 9:10 338
- 9:20 339
- 9:30 340
A = +1
A = +2
A = +3
A = +4
SITE A = 234m.
SITE B = 198m.
SITE C = 182m.
SITE D = 206m.
SITE A
SITE B
SITE C
SITE D
8:20
235m.
8:30
200m.
8:40
185m.
8:50
210m.
Correction
Area limited to 10 to 15km around the point with altitude deviation <500m
TOPOGRAPHY
Reference
Altimetry
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

What is propagation ?
Energy transfer with no physical transportation

Line of sight propagation
Propagation between 2 points for which the direct ray is sufficiently clear
of obstacles for diffraction to be a negligible effect.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation

(A) antenna supplied by P power (transmitted power) will create in the whole
space an E magnetic field and (B) antenna introduced in this space will
collect a part of E field (Received power).
A B
E R
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Line of sight links
Link in which diffraction effects are minor

What is diffraction ?
Diffraction is a phenomena which tends to modify radio wave path
nearing on obstruction
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Radio waves are related to 3 phenomena

Diffraction

Refraction

Reflection
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Let's examine the following diagram: it seems there is no diffraction
E R
B
P
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Maxwell equations indicate that:

The field in R point can be calculated with the field created in E in any
point of P Plane

P plane will be separated in concentric rings

If P plane is moved in parallel to itself, B creates a revolution ellipse
harring E and R as centers.

The main part of the Energy is concentrated along the ER line.
The first ellipsoid along this line concentrated along the ER line.
The first ellipsoid along this line concentrates the main part of the energy.

The first ellipsoid is called Fresnel Ellipsoid
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
The ellipsoid shall be cleared from any obstruction. But the energy
radiated in E will suffer from attenuation when reaching point R. This
attenuation is the ratio of transmitted power to received power. It is
called propagation loss (Diffraction loss)
) (
) ( 4
log 20
m
m d
A
dB
t
=
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Definition of CLEARANCE
C = 1 means that 100% of Fresnel zone is cleared from any
obstruction. Only 60% of the first ellipsoid shall be cleared of
obstructions to have a received level equivalent to the level of free
space.

For Microstar (Short High Frequency Hops), 100% of clearance (C = 1)
will be required.
Please, refer to the next page for the Main (Top-to-Top)
Path Clearance Rules

TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Climate-Terrain Factor c
Band <2 (good to
average)
>2 (moderate to
very difficult)
Above 3 Ghz 0.6F1 @ k = 1 F1 @ k = 4/3 and
0.3F1 @ k = 2/3*
Below 3 Ghz 0.6F1 @ k = 1 0.6F1 @ k = 1
* If 0.3F1 @ k=2/3 clearance is controlling, diversity
protection is usually required
Diversity (Top-to-Bottom) Path Clearance Rule
All bands 0.6F1 @ k = 4/3 0.6F1 @ k= 4/3
Blackout Area Main Path Clearance Rule
Above 3 Ghz N/A K = 1 grazing
over a 150 ft ABL

In reality, atmosphere has an influence. It is not homogeneous.
Instead of being straight, the wave will be bent in relation to the
atmosphere's refraction index.

Air n index is written n=1+N 10
-6
and is close to the unity
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
n0
n1
n2
n3
n4
n5
n6
n0 sin io = n1 sin i1 = n2 sin i2 ............... = etc
n2
n1
n1 sin i1 = n2 sin i2
u1 ui
u2
Refracted ray
Reflected ray Incident ray
n1 and n2 indexes are linked to the environment
TERRAIN PROFILES
DESCARTES SNELL's refraction law
Propagation
Propagation of a radius in an atmosphere
of which index depends on the altitude
Ro is the Earth's radius, that is to say 6400
km
nk
ni
nm
k
K
'k
h
k
1
L
1
Earth
Ro
0
h1
TERRAIN PROFILES
With fundamental relation that rules
propagation in this kind of atmosphere

n (Ro+h) cos = Cte
Propagation
A few definitions:
Troposphere: the lower layers of the atmosphere just above the
Earth's surface in which temperature decreases with height. This
portion extends from the surface up to 9km at the poles to about 17
km at the equator
There can be temperature inversion in the troposphere
Refractive index n: ratio between wave speed in vaccuum and wave
speed in the environment considered
N refractivity = one million times the amount by which the refractive
index n exceeds unity
Spheric atmosphere with constant vertical gradient of

dn
dh
N per km = 40 /
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Empirical formula for N

T is the temperature in KELVIN (Degree in celsius + 273.15)
p is the air pressure (hpa in mbar)
e is water vapor pressure

p, e and t depend on the height, therefore.
N depends on the height
N
T
p
e
T
= +
77 6
4810
.
( . )
dn
dh
N per km = 40 /
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Let's use the formula (Ro+h) cos = Cte
With successive deviation, we have a relative curvature of
rays compared with Earth's surface

We suppose that the index is approximatively a linear
function of the height, therefore:
o = +
dn
dh Ro
1
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
=
dh
dn
constant
3 cases:

Case
dn
dh
1 0 =
Case
dn
dh
2 0 >
highly positive
Case
dn
dh
3 0 <
highly negative
ray path is straight
ray path is downtilted: there is a subrefraction
ray path is uptilted: there is a superrefraction
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
The most frequent case is n3 rays ondulate further than if their
propagation is in straight line they have thus better clearing above
the ground.
It is difficult to define a project by taking into account the rays'
curvature. The important element in calculation being the rays'
relative curvature compared with real earth, we'll replace the real
earth by a fictive one on condition that the rays' relative curvature
remains constant.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Let's use a fictive earth enabling wave propagation to be in straight line

that is to say

The fictive earth's radius is given by:

using a k coefficient, we have

written:
0 =
dh
dn
1 1
R Ro
dno
dh
= =
k
Ro dno dh
=
+
1
1 ( / )
k
R
Ro
= = = =
8500
6400
4 3 1 33 / .
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
We replaced real case by equivalent case in which propagation is
straight

Fictive earth's radius varies with propagation in compliance with R
Law = k Ro

Parameter k being defined, paragraph a) of CCIR 338-5 Rec for profile
definition will apply
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
In the case of super-refraction
Fictive ray is highly superior to standard ray k>1 and R>Ro and there will
be visible lowering of obstructions. This is case number 3
In the case of sub-refraction
Fictive ray is highly inferior to standard ray k<1 and R<Ro and there will
be visible raise of obstructions. This is case number 2
Case number 2 is important for project definition
A curve defined by BOITHIAS and BATTESTI based on measurements
carried out under continental temperate climate shows the values under
which coefficient k = R/Ro does not decrease during 10
-4
of the time,
depending on the hop length.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
Path length (km)
Figure 2 - k
e
value exceeded during about 99.9% of the worse month
(continental temperate climate)
TERRAIN PROFILES
Propagation
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

TERRAIN PROFILES
Profiles
Terrain profiles are necessary to determine antenna heights.
The following criteria must be observed to select the various sites of a
Telecom network:
Line of sight between them according to the respect of the
clearance rules.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Path profile
Example of the path profile, plotted with the application software
recommended by Harris MCD:
Fresnel zone
Line of sight
Tower 2
Tower 1
Altitude + vegetation
Profiles
TERRAIN PROFILES
Path profile
This figure shows the path profile with first fresnel zone and terrain
that varies with k value.
The line of sight is drawn as a straight line and the ray bending due to
variation of k value is added to the terrain elevation.
There must be 60% clearance of first Fresnel zone to avoid diffraction
loss in addition to the free space loss.
Earth bulge
In order to draw the line of sight in a path profile, the ray bending due
to variation of the k value is added to the terrain heights.

Profiles
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

TERRAIN PROFILES
Ground reflections
This figure shows a typical signal reflection. The more conductive the
ground, the stronger the reflection is.
A B
Reflection point
Reflective surface
Reflection
Reflections from sea, ponds etc are more critical than reflections
from terrain with vegetation.
The reflection coefficient is dependant of the type of terrain.
Generally the reflection coefficient decreases with the frequency.
On the other hand a larger area is required to reflect a signal at a lower
frequency.

The effective reflection coefficient is also a function of the path's
grazing angle and the curvature of the earth (the k value).
Generally vertical polarization gives reduced reflection, especially at
lower frequencies.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Reflection
The received signal is the combination of the direct signal and the
reflected signal.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Reflection
Adding these two signals will give a signal strength that is a function
of the height at the receiver site as indicated in the figure below
TERRAIN PROFILES
Optimum
Antenna
Separation
Field strength
Height
Reflection
To counteract the effect of ground reflections space diversity
arrangements with two receiver antennas with a vertical separation are
widely used.
The antenna separation should give maximum received signal level at
the space antenna when the main antenna is at a minimum and vice
versa vice versa.

The optimum antenna separation may be found using one of 2
different methods.
1 Geometrical method using Fresnel zone
2 Analytical method using services expansions

TERRAIN PROFILES
Reflection
1 Geometrical method
A geometrical property of the ellipsoid is that the angle of incidence
equals the reflection angle at the circumference. This property may be
used to find the reflection point.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Tangent
Reflection
When fresnel ellipsoid tangents the reflection plan can be calculated.
Consequently the reflection point may be found by increasing the
fresnel zone until it touches the terrain. If the ellipse tangent is parallel
to the terrain, there is a reflection point.
TERRAIN PROFILES
Reflection
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

Models used by Harris MCD
The various types of GPS
LIST OF TOOLS USED DURING THE SURVEY
Garmin GPS 12XL
Garmin GPSMAP 76S (WAAS)
Garmin GPS III / III Plus
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

What is GPS
A super accurate system
Developed and maintained by Dept. of Defense
Nuclear subs needed positioning
Satellite-based
Sold Congress on the idea that other applications would follow
GPS user's guide
GPS
Status of GPs
In development since 1973
First satellite launched in 1978
All GPS satellites built and tested
Next generation of satellites (Block IIR) are already on contract
Managed by the Department of Defense
GPS
GPS user's guide
Navstar satellite constellation
24 Sat
6 planes
20.200 km Orbit
GPS
GPS user's guide
Space segment description
24 satellites in final constellation
6 planes with 55 rotation
Each plane has 4 satellites

Very high orbit
12,600 miles
Approximately 1 revolution in 12 hours
For accuracy
Survivability
Coverage
GPS
GPS user's guide
Satellite-based
Uses trilateration from satellites
24 satellites in final constellation
21 operational, 3 spares

Satellites in very high or bit (12,600 miles)
for accuracy
survivability
coverage

Only possible with today's technology
computers and clocks
GPS
GPS user's guide
Satellite-based
Weight when the satellite is lauched - 3855 kg
Weight in final ORBIT - 816 kg
Power - 700 w
2 frequency bandwiths L and S
S1 2227,5 MHz
S2 1783,74 MHz
L1 (1575 MHz)
L2 (1227 MHz)
L1 an L2 are generated by a Ref frequency 10,23 MHz given by a
ATOMIC reference clock (cesium)
GPS
GPS user's guide
GPS segments
MASTER
CONTROL SEGMENT
CONTROL
STATIONS
SPACE SEGMENT
USER SEGMENT
GPS
GPS user's guide
How accurate is it ?
That depends:

Depends on some variables
Time spent on measurements
Design of receiver
Relative positions of satellites

Sub-centimeter accuracies from survey products
Fifteen to fifty meters with non-differential GPS
One to five meters with differential GPS
Gouvt. can degrade accuracy if they want to
GPS
GPS user's guide
How does GPS work ?
2
GPS measures distance
from the satellites
using speed of light.
3
To measure the distance
GPS needs good clocks
and a fourth SV
4
Once GPS knows distance,
it needs to know satellite's
position
5
Then correct for
ionospheric and
tropospheric delays.
1
Trilateration from satellites
is basis of system
GPS receiver
GPS
GPS user's guide
1 trilateration from satellites
By measuring distance from several satellites you can calculate your
position thru mathematics
GPS
GPS user's guide
Trilateration
One measurement narrows down our position to the surface of a sphere
11,000 miles
We're somewhere on the
surface of this sphere.
GPS
GPS user's guide
Trilateration
Second measurement narrows it down to intersection of two spheres
11,000 Miles
12,000 Miles
Intersection of two
spheres is a circle
GPS
GPS user's guide
Trilateration
Third measurement narrows to just two points
Intersection of three
spheres is only two
points.
GPS
GPS user's guide
Trilateration
Fourth measurement will decide between two points.
Fourth measurement
will only go through
one of the two points.
GPS
GPS user's guide
Trilateration
In practice 3 measurements are enough
We can discard one point
One point will be a ridiculous answer
Out in space
Or moving at high speed
We still need the 4th measurement because there are four dimensions
to solve for (X,Y,Z and Time)
GPS
GPS user's guide
2 satellite ranging
Measuring the distance to a satellite
Done by measuring travel time of radio signals
GPS
GPS user's guide
Speed-of-light measurement
Measure how long it takes the GPS signal to get to us
Multiply that time by 186,000 miles/sec
Time (sec) x 186,000 = miles

If you've got good clocks, all you need to know is exactly when signal
left satellite
GPS
GPS user's guide
GPS community base station
Mounting Pole*
PC*
Data/Power
Cable
GPS Receiver
120V Uninterruptible Power
Supply *
* Supplied by Customer
120VAC to
12VDC
Power Supply
GPS Antenna
Antenna Cable
GPS
GPS user's guide
Line of sight
Why we use satellites for mapping
TRIMBLE NAVIGATION
GPS
GPS user's guide
PDOP
PDOP BAD PDOP Good
GPS
GPS user's guide
Dilution of precision (DOP)
Can be expressed in different dimensions
GDOP - Geometric dilution of precision
PDOP - Position dilution of precision
HDOP - Horizontal dilution of precision
VDOP - Vertical dilution of precision
EDOP - East dilution of precision
NDOP - North dilution of precision
TDOP - Time dilution of precision
GDOP = PDOP + TDOP
PDOP = HDOP + VDOP
HDOP = EDOP + NDOP
GPS
GPS user's guide
Altitude reference
Ellipsoid
A smooth, mathematically defined model of the earth's surface
Geoid
A surface of equal gravitational pull (equipotential) best fitting the average
sea surface over the whole globe
Geoid
MSL
HAE
Earths Surface
Ellipsoid
GPS
GPS user's guide
Datum
There are many regional datums that are chosen so that the ellipsoid
could conform as closely as possible to the geoid over the region rather
than the whole globe.
N
o
r
th
A
m
e
r
ic
a
E
u
ro
p
e
Ellipsoid
fitting
North
America
Ellipsoid
fitting
Europe
Geoid
GPS
GPS user's guide
Datum
A datum is a specifically oriented reference ellipsoid defined by 8
elements
Position of the network (3 elements)
Orientation of the network (3 elements)
Parameters of the reference ellipsoid (2 elements)
GPS
GPS user's guide
Datum (WGS 84)
GPS
GPS user's guide
Datum (NAD 27)
GPS
GPS user's guide
Datum
One point can have different sets of coordinates depending on the
datum used.
X
GPS
GPS user's guide
Projection types
Reference to WGS72
Des ignation Ellips oid Diameter 1/f
y A x A z A
Zone
WGS72 6378135 298.26 0 0 0 World
Europ 50.ED Mayford 1924 6378388 297 103 84 127 Europe
NAD27 Clarke 1866 6378206 294.98 -157 22 -176 USA
IGN (NTF) Clarke 1880 6378249 293.47 66 170 -311 France North
Africa
Wake-Eniwetok
1960
Hough 6378270 297 -68
-62
-62
-112
-121
-144
44
22
38
Kwajalein
Wake
Ennwetok
Guam 1963 Clarke 1866 6378206 94.98 235 89 -254 Iles Marianes
Arc 1950 (CAPE) Clarke 1880 6378249 293.465 131 129 292 South Africa
Adindan Clarke 1880 6378249 293.47 26 152 -212 Egypt
GPS
GPS user's guide
2d versus 3d data
3d needs 4 SV's (X, Y, Z and Time)

2d needs 3 SV'S (X, Y, Time and user entered Z)
GPS
GPS user's guide
2d versus 3d data (Contd.)
Inputting a poor elevation will give a poor horizontal position.
Line of position
GPS
GPS user's guide
2d versus 3d data
Inputting the correct elevation will result in the correct position.
Line of position
Correct Latitude
Correct Elev.
GPS
GPS user's guide
2d versus 3d data (Contd.)
Inputing the wrong elevation will result in the wrong position.
Line of position
Wrong Latitude
Wrong Elev.
GPS
GPS user's guide
Contents
1) Topography
- Altimetry
2) Terrain profiles
- Propagation
- Reflection
3) GPS
4) Grounding system

Roles of the grounding system
What is it used for ?
The only use of a ground system is to handle into the ground the
currents entering or leaving the location in common mode.

A ground system is only a "waste receptacle" but shall be a good
quality system.
It ensures:
1) electrical protection / lightning
2) technical quality
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Protective ground
The primary role of a ground connection is to protect people against
electrocutions risks. Electric shock risk depends on the strength of the
electric current flowing through the body, and on the part of the human
body touched.
Human body resistance is not linear.
1mA current is hardly detected by the hands. 10mA current causes
strong shock and a 30mA current can tetanize muscles and cause heart
fibrillation.
Rules for protection against electric shocks can not take into account
variable resistance of human body. They reduce contact voltage to
conventional protection value in order to prevent fatal shock.
The concept of protective ground is not standardized. It's important to
know that it's the correct ground equipotentiality which protects
installation, and not the grounding system.
Manhole bond around residential housing is more efficient than a single
ground post, whatever its resistance.
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Equipment leakage current
Leakage currents are handled via grounding conductors grounding
conductor is conventionally in green/yellow color. It connects
equipment chassis to the ground system but current doesn't flow to
the ground "fault currents" are closed by connecting neutral
conductor to the ground, not in the ground. Grounding is strictly
conventional. We may think that the role of a ground connector is to
dry off the leakage current but it's no true
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Conductor current doesn't flow into the ground
Unavoidable leakage currents are looped by
neutral's grounding conductor
leakage
230V
PHASE
NEUTRAL
Ground conductor
A leakage current of some ten ampres is normal for large computer
rooms
Since leakage and fault currents are internal currents, they don't flow
through the ground. Ground resistance is therefore different
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Static potential referent
Some moving vehicules isolated from the ground (trucks, planes ...) are
charged compared to the ground (i.e dry dusty wind). Electric charges
carried by airborne particles settle on the vehicule of which potential
difference compared to the ground can reach tens of kilovolts!
During fuel tank filling, a spark may inflame vapors if the vehicule is not
discharged first. Only a connector used to discharge a moving vehicule
can called "protective ground" without making a mistake
i=xya
R<10k O
Rising sand
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Ground connection is not used as protection it is the equipotentiality
between chassis which is taken into account. It does not dry off the
leakage currents (except for HV in TT configuration)
A simple post can discharge an isolated moving vehicule. External
currents, including lightning current, are dried off both through the
ground and through other external cables.
Ground resistance is not important in cable protection
GROUNDING SYSTEM
For people as well as for equipment, the risk lies under too important
potential differences between near points. The most important thing
is for people the equipotentiality between chassis simultaneously
accessible and for equipment, the equipotentiality between
interconnected equipment.
The most important for equipment operation is the location
equipotentiality
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Ground resistance measurement
Ground connection quality is measured by its resistance.
Ground resistance is applicable only with low frequencies. Beyond
several MHz (frequency range in which electronic systems are very
sensitive), ground connector impedance can no longer be measured
and has physically no sense any more.
All the ground connectors on a single location shall be
interconnected.
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Importance of ground resistance measurement
When the absolute value of ground resistance is unchanged, it's
evolution in time is interesting (if the value falls, it means ground
cables are deteriorating). Ground network resetting may be required.

STORY
Automatic switch's ground resistance value = the infinity war bomb
had cut off the grounding conductor but no one had noticed it in the
system operation for half a century
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Ground resistivity
Ground resistivity is measured via 4-wire ground current meter. The
unit of measurement is the Ohm.meter
Resistivity < 300 is correct
Resistivity > 500 is bad
Contrary to ground network resistivity, ground resistivity is very
important
Resistivity of soil layers varies significantly and ground network
conductors should preferably be burried at low resistance depth.
In soils with high resistivity, meshed ground networks should be made of
small size meshes for good horizontal equipotentiality.
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Ground resistivity
With average ground resistivity and the geometry of underground
conductors, it is possible to assess the ground network resistance.
It is not very important but evaluating the resistance with calculation
and validating it with measurement may put the customer's mind at
ease
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Vertical post or horizontal cable ?
Underground conductor may be rammed in vertically (post) or burried
horizontally (manhole bond or bridles)
Horizontal conductors are better for the location equipotentiality
man-hole
Ground post
min.
2m
Building
Implementation of a ground network
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Implementation of a ground network
Horizontal conductors should be spaced by at least 20 cm from other
metal cables to reduce corrosion rate (use preferably 50 mm section
copper or 35 mm flat copper cable). Depth of lay: 1m. The trench will
be refilled with low resistivity arable soil, but not with crusher - run
stones. Underground cable connections should be brazed and
welded. Underground network should be meshed
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Raft foundation
10m
Bridle Bridle
Bridle Bridle
Manhole bond
Example of meshing
GROUNDING SYSTEM

3 mistakes to be avoided

Low ground resistance requirement
Only location equipotentiality is important, or at least the equipotentiality of
interconnected equipment (only the ground system of VHV station shall have low
impedance rate) let's not spend money in ground resistance reduction

Separated ground systems
They break the equipotentiality principle

Star connection of chassis to the ground connector
Meshing is the only solution allowing chassis current division and equipotentiality
improvement
GROUNDING SYSTEM
Thank you
www.huawei.com

Geography of Microwave Survey-20080226-A

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