Homologous

structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry

Homology

- Similarity in characteristics resulting from

a shared ancestry

A body part with the same basic structure and embryonic origin as that of another organism, though not necessarily sharing the same function. Thus the bones of vertebrate forelimbs are homologous even though the limbs can function in widely different ways (e.g., for swimming, flying, running, or grasping). Darwinists interpret such similarities as due to inheritance from a common ancestor (phylogenetic homology).

 Phylogenetic

species concept

A definition of species as the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor, forming one branch on the tree of life

Phylogenetic

tree

A branching diagram that represents a hypothesis about evolutionary history of a group of organism

Phylogeny

- The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

Evolution is the accumulation of inherited changes within populations over time.

Population = all individuals of the same species that live in a particular area. A population may diverge from other populations enough to become a new species (that is a new tree branch). All species common ancestors

HM5959/FSG/UiTMCS

The goal of systematic is to reconstruct phylogeny (production of phyla), the evolutionary history of a group of organisms from a common ancestor.
When systematists determine evolutionary relationships among and between species and higher taxa, they build classifications based on common ancestry.

HM5959/FSG/UiTMCS

 Phylogenetic

trees reflect the hierarchical classification of taxonomic groups nested within more inclusive groups.

HM5959/FSG/UiTMCS

Help to understand evolutionary patterns that might provide clues to the origin and spread of HIV and other pathogens. Help us to predict characteristics of newly discovered species.

HM5959/FSG/UiTMCS

Systematists evaluate similarities

They consider structural, physiological, development, behavioral, and molecular traits. When comparing these similarities, they look for homology in different organisms.

 Refers

to the presence, in two or more sp. of a structure derived from a recent common ancestor. : the bones in the wings of a bird and a bat are homologous.

Example

 Similar

structures in two or more species NOT derived from a recent common ancestor
result when unrelated or distantly related species become adapted to similar environmental conditions.

Sometimes

Example

: Although, the wings of butterfly are adapted for flight, they have different structure from bird wings, these animals do NOT share a common wing ancestor.

 Sharks

and dolphins have similar, but independently derived body forms because they have become adapted to similar environmental (aquatic) and lifestyles(predatory). characteristic that appears homologous, but is actually independently acquired, is describes as exhibiting homoplasy/analogy (same characteristics from adaptation).

 Shared

ancestral characters are traits originating in a common ancestor, which persist in all descendants

Also called plesiomorphic characters

Shared

derived characters (also synapomorphic characters) are found in the most recent common ancestor of a group.

Organisms sharing many homologous structures are considered closely related

While organisms sharing a few homologous characters are presumed less closely related. The systematizes,

- First, will examines the characteristic in the largest group(such as phylum or class) of organisms - And interpret them as indicating the most remote common ancestor.

Features that were present in an ancestral species and remain present in all groups descended from that ancestor. Example : The vertebral column, present in all vertebrates, is an ancestral character for study of classes within subphylum Vertebrata.

Studying the presence and absence of the vertebral column does not help us to discriminate among the various classes of vertebrates.

Example : We could not distinguish between amphibians and mammals, because all individuals in these classes have a vertebral column.

AMPHIBIANS

Traits that found in two or more taxa that first appeared in their most recent common ancestor. is unique to a particular clade. Example :

If we compare dogs, goats, and dolphins (all of which are mammals), we find that dogs and goats have abundant hair whereas dolphins do not.

Hair is an ancestral trait in mammals and therefore cannot be used as evidence that dogs and goats share a more recent common ancestor.
In contrast, the virtual absence of hair in mature dolphin is a derived character within mammals.

HM5959/FSG/UiTMCS

 When

we compared dogs, dolphins and whales, we find that dolphins and whales share this derived character, providing evidence that these animals evolved from a common ancestor not shared by dogs.
it is a shared derived character that uniquely identifies mammals.

SO,

HM5959/FSG/UiTMCS

 Traits

cannot be selected without regard for their value select criteria carefully

Biologists Requires

careful comparison of traits across different organisms a result, biologists use assemblages of characteristics to classify any given organism

As

Molecular systematics examines the DNA base sequences to attempt to establish relationships between organisms.
Molecular phylogenetics, also known as molecular systematics, is the use of the structure of molecules to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. The result of a molecular phylogenetic analysis is expressed in a phylogenetic tree. The DNA of an organism retains the base sequences of its ancestors, subject to variation by random mutation events.

 The

more similar the base sequences of a given region of DNA, the more likely two organisms being compared are to be related.

For example, sequencing of a section of the DNA of humans and apes shows that chimpanzees and humans share a common ancestor, probably about 6 million years ago.

Protein

sequences, antibody cross-reactivity, and other molecular approaches are considered in such analyses

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) are used to examine prokaryotic differences Also used to examine the lineage of vertebrates; used to establish that dogs diverged from wolves only 100,000 years ago (right). ~1000 bp were compared in dogs and wolves. Common ancestor >100,000 years ago Provides taxonomic groupings

Ideally, a taxon should reflect evolutionary relationships

A monophyletic taxon includes an ancestral type and all of its decendents

This is a natural grouping

A paraphyletic taxon contains the common ancestor but not all of its descendents

This may reflect complex lines of evolutionary processes

A polyphyletic taxon will have several evolutionary lines that do not necessarily include the most recent common ancestor to all of the compared types.

To be avoided, because they do not represent natural associations

Taxa I and III are monophyletic Taxon II is paraphyletic Taxon IV is polyphyletic

 Phenetics

Compares in a quantitative manner (numbers are assigned according to similarity), structural details of different organisms to determine whether they are related Ignores homoplasy Not taking homoplasy into account can create inaccuracies in the analysis of phylogenies Can be used in molecular context regarding amino acid or nucleotide base sequences

 Evolutionary

systematics

Uses combination of shared ancestral features and shared derived characters

Phylogenetic

systematics also called

cladistics

Seeks common ancestors Look at shared derived characters, molecular to structural to behavior to physiology/biochemistry

The definition of reptiles, for instance, varies by technique

Evolutionary systematics Based on shared character

Cladistics Based on common ancestor

 Outgroup

analysis seeks taxa that diverged prior to any taxa that are being investigated. Outgroup used to establish common ancestor

The relationships are displayed in a graphical form called a cladogram, which tests hypotheses that relate to paired groups of organisms To develop the most accurate cladogram, cladists seek the minimum number of changes between two groups. This is the principle of parsimony analysis.

Select the groups to be compared Select the characters to be used to separate groups Select what you expect to be the outgroup (here Amphioxus) Select common ancestor within the group with common ancestral character common to all (backbone) but nothing else.

Common jawed ancestral vertebrate (sunfish) Common tetrapod (four-legged) ancestor (newt) All remaining in-group members have an amniotic egg Note branch point called nodes

All remaining three groups are mammals, and so share a common mammal ancestor However, chimpanzees and humans are primates and group together Note that the cladogram can be drawn at least two ways, yet be equivalent

 Cladistics

show that there is no need to specify exactly what the common ancestor is ...

Only determine that two groups must have a common ancestor

Thus,

cladograms do not imply specific relationships between previous and current (or future) taxa, only that they are related through common ancestry.