CHAPTER 1: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1.1: Introduction to Op-Amp 1.2: Symbol, Packaging, Pinouts 1.3: Ideal and Practical Characteristic of IC 741 Op-Amp

Introduction to Operational Amplifier IC

The term operational amplifier, abbreviated Op-Amp, was coined in the 1940s as a tube-type amplifier. In those days, it was used in the analog computers to perform a variety of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication etc. Due to its use in performing mathematical operations, it has been given a name operational amplifier. Due to the use of vacuum tubes, the early Op-Amps were bulky, power consuming and expensive.

Introduction to Operational Amplifier IC (Cont)

Robert J. Widlar at Fairchild brought out the popular 741 integrated circuit (IC) Op-Amp between 1964-1968. The IC version of Op-Amp uses BJTs and FETs which are fabricated along with the other supporting components, on a single semiconductor chip or wafer which is of a pinhead size. IC Op-Amps are inexpensive, take up less space and consume less power. The modern linear IC Op-Amp works at lower voltages. The Op-Amp is basically an excellent high gain DC amplifier.

The differential amplifier is the basic building block of IC Op-Amp.

Key Point: Because of their low cost, small size, versatility, flexibility and dependability, Op-Amps are used in the fields of process control, communications, computers, power and signal sources, displays and measuring systems.

Symbol, Packaging and Pinouts

Figure 1.1(a)-(c) show the standard symbols of Op-Amp. Figure 1.1(a) is a symbol of a buffer Op-Amp. Figure 1.1(b) is a symbol of a differential input, single ended output Op- Amp. This symbol represents the most common types of op amps, including voltage feedback, and current feedback. It is often times pictured with the non-inverting input at the top and the inverting input at the bottom. Figure 1.1(c) is a symbol of a differential input, differential output Op-Amp. The outputs can be thought of as inverting and noninverting, and are shown across from the opposite polarity input for easy completion of feedback loops on schematics.

Symbol of Op-Amp

Figure 1.1: Standard symbols of Op-Amp; (a) buffer Op-Amp (b) a differential input, single ended output Op-Amp (c) a differential input, differential output Op-Amp

Packaging of Op-Amp
The Op-Amp ICs are available in various packages. The three popular packages available for Op-Amp are: 1) The metal can package (TO) 2) The dual in line package (DIP) 3) The flat package or flat pack

Packaging of Op-Amp (Metal Can Package - TO)

Available with 3,5,8,10 and 12 pins.
The metal sealing plane is at the bottom, used over which the silicon chip bonded. This plane is effective for the dissipation of heat. Figure 1.2 shows the 8 pin metal can package and the connection diagram. The tab is used to identify pin 8 and the pins are numbered counterclockwise when metal can is viewed from the top.

Packaging of Op-Amp (Metal Can Package - TO)

Figure 1.2: Metal can package (TO)

Packaging of Op-Amp (Dual In Line Pack - DIP)

The DIP is popular for commercial applications. It is easy to handle, fits standard mounting hardware and inexpensive when molded in plastic.

Ceramic DIPs are used for high temperature, high performance (usually military) equipment.
Figure 1.3 shows 8 pin and 14 pins DIPs and their connection diagrams. For DIPs either plastic or ceramic cases are available. The pin 1 is indicated by a notch or dot, as viewed from the top and other terminals are numbered counterclockwise.

Packaging of Op-Amp (Dual In Line Pack - DIP)

Figure 1.3: Dual in line packages (DIP)

Packaging of Op-Amp (Flat Package)

For circuits where the space is critical, the flat pack gives a compact package.
Flat packs are much difficult to handle than DIPs and often do not dissipate power as well. The metal can packages allow easy connection to heat sink, and are chosen when heat dissipation is the main consideration. Figure 1.4 shows 10 pin flat package where the chip is enclosed in a rectangular ceramic case. The terminals are taken out through the sides and ends.

Packaging of Op-Amp (Flat Package)

Figure 1.4: Flat package

Pinouts of Op-Amp
The main three pins which are normally appear in an Op-Amp circuit schematic diagram are: 1) Pin 2 (-) - inverting input If a positive signal is sent to inverting terminal, the output signal would be inverted and it would be negative. Conversely, if a negative signal is sent to the inverting terminal, the output would be inverted and it would be positive. 2) Pin 3 (+) - non-inverting input If a positive signal is sent to the non-inverting terminal, the output signal would not be inverted and it would remain positive. 3) Pin 6 - Amplifier output

Pinouts of Op-Amp
The other pins includes: 1) Pin 1 & 5 - The null offset Provide a way to eliminate any offset in the output voltage of the amplifier.

The offset voltage is additive with output (pin 6 in this case), can be either positive or negative and is normally less than 10 mV.
Because the off-set voltage is so small, in most cases we can ignore the contribution of offset voltage and leave the null offset (pins 1&5) to be open. Have a special functions such as fine-tuning when the Op-Amp is required to amplify DC signals.

Pinouts of Op-Amp
2) Pin 7 (positive) & pin 4 (negative) power supply In reality, the amplifier needs the power source to increase the input signal to the strength in order for the output signal to be useful.

3) Pin 8 (labeled NC) Mentioned as Not Connected and not been used.

Pinouts of Op-Amp

Figure 1.5: The schematic symbol for an Op-Amp

Pinouts of Op-Amp

Figure 1.6: Pinout for a single Op-Amp (741 included) when housed in an 8-pin DIP (Dual Inline Package) integrated circuit

Ideal And Practical Characteristic of IC 741 Op-Amp

Sr. No 1 2 3 4 Parameter Open loop voltage gain Output Impedance Input Impedance Input offset current Symbol AOL ZOut Zin I os Ideal 0 0 Practical 741 IC 200,000 75 2 M 200 nA

Ideal op-amp

+ AVin
Vin
~

Vout Zout=0

5
6 7 8 9

Input offset voltage

Bandwidth CMRR Slew rate Input Bias Current

VOs
B. W S Ib

0
0

2 mV
1 MHz 90 dB 0.5 V/s 80 nA

Practical op-amp

+
Vin Zin
~

Zout

Vout

AVin

Ideal Characteristic of Op-Amp

- Infinite voltage gain: It is the differential open loop gain and is infinite for an ideal Op-Amp -Infinite input impedance: Infinite for ideal Op-Amp. This ensures that no current can flow into an ideal Op-Amp -Zero output impedance: Zero for ideal Op-Amp. This ensures that the output voltage of the Op-Amp remains same -Zero offset voltage: The presence of the small output voltage though V1 = V2 = 0 is called an offset voltage. It is zero for an ideal Op-Amp. This ensures zero output for zero input signal voltage -Infinite Bandwidth: The range frequency over which the amplifier performance is satisfactory is called bandwidth. The bandwidth of an ideal Op-Amp is infinite. This means the operating frequency range is from 0 to .This ensures that the gain of the Op-Amp will be constant over the frequency range from DC (zero frequency) to infinite frequency. So, Op-Amp can amplify DC as well as AC signals -Infinite CMRR: The ratio of differential gain and common mode gain is defined as CMRR. Thus infinite CMRR of an ideal Op-Amp ensures zero common mode gain. Due to this common mode noise output voltage is zero for an ideal Op-Amp - Infinite slew rate: This ensures that the changes in the output voltage occur simultaneously with the changes in the input voltage

Practical Characteristic of Op-Amp

- Open loop gain: It is the voltage gain of the Op-Amp when no feedback is applied. Practically it is several thousands - Input impedance: It is infinite and typically greater than 1M. But using FETs for the input stage, it can be increased up to several hundred M - Output impedance: It is typically few hundred ohms. With the help of negative feedback, it can be reduced to a very small value like 1 or 2 ohms - Bandwidth: The bandwidth of practical Op-Amp in open loop configuration is very small. By application of negative feedback, it can be increased to a desired value - Input offset voltage: Practical Op-Amp shows a small non zero output voltage - Input bias current: The practical Op-Amps do have some input currents which are very small, of the order of 10^-6 to 10^-14 A

CHAPTER 1: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1.4: Differential Gain (Ad) 1.5: Common Mode Gain (Ac) 1.6: Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) 1.7: Slew Rate

Differential Gain (Ad)

Ad = differential gain V1 - V2 = difference voltage denoted as Vd
Vo = Ad (Vd) Vo = Ad (V1-V2)

Ad = Vo / (Vd)

Ad = 20 Log10 (Ad) in dB

Generally the differential gain is expressed in decibel (dB) value

Common Mode Gain (Ac)

Assume V1 = V2, then ideally the output voltage V0 = (V1-V2) Ad must be 0.

But the output voltage of the practical differential amplifier not only depends on the difference voltage but also depends on the average level of the 2 inputs.
Such an average level of the 2 inputs is called common mode signal (Vc) . Vc = (V1 + V2 ) / 2

The gain with which it amplifies the common mode signal to produce the output is called common mode gain of the differential amplifiers (Ac). V0 = Ac Vc

Thus, there exists some finite output for V1 = V2 due to such common mode gain (Ac), in case of practical differential amplifiers.

Common Mode Gain (Ac) Cont

So the total output of any differential amplifier can be expressed as:

V0 = Ad Vd + Ac Vc

For an ideal differential amplifier, the differential gain Ad must be infinite while the common mode gain must be 0. This ensures 0 output for V1 = V2 But due to mismatch in the internal circuitry, there is some output available for V1= V2 and gain Ac is not practically 0.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

When the same voltage is applied to both inputs, the differential amplifier is said to be operated in a common mode configuration. Many disturbance signals, noise signals appear as a common signal to both input terminals of the differential amplifiers.

Such a common signal should be rejected by the differential amplifier.

The ability of a differential amplifier to reject common mode signal is expressed by a ratio called common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

Ideally the common mode voltage gain is 0, thus the ideal value of CMRR is infinite
For a practical differential amplifier, Ad is large and Ac is small, thus the value of CMRR is large

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) Cont

Thus, CMRR is expressed by: CMRR = =

Many times, CMRR is expressed in dB as: CMRR in dB = 20 log

dB

The output voltage can be expressed in terms of CMRR as: Vo = Ad Vd [1 + . ]

CMRR (EXAMPLE 1.1)

Determine the output voltage of a differential amplifier for the input voltages of 300 V and 240 V. The differential gain of the amplifier is 5000 and the value of the CMRR is 100.

Vd = V 1 V2 = 300-240 = 60 V Vc = V1 + V2 = 300 + 240 2 2 = 270 V

CMRR = Ad Ac 100 = 5000 Ac

Ac = 50
Vo = A d Vd + A c Vc = (5000 x 60) + (50 x 270)

= 313 500 V

Slew Rate (SR)

The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage with time The slew rate is caused due to limited charging rate of the compensating capacitor and current limiting and saturation of the internal stage of Op-Amp, when a high frequency, large amplitude signal is applied The internal capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously It is given by

By large charging rate, the capacitor should be small or charging current should be large Hence, the slew rate for Op-Amp whose maximum internal capacitor charging current is known, can be obtained as:
S = Imax / C

Effect of Slew Rate (SR)

Due to slew rate of Op-Amp, for a particular input frequency, output get distorted as shown in Figure 1.7 From Figure 1.7, S =

(V/sec)

The typical value of S for 741 Op-Amp or 0.5 x 10^6 V/sec or 0.5 V/ s

Figure 1.7: Effect of slew rate

Slew Rate (SR) Equation

For distortion free output, the maximum allowable input frequency fm can be obtained as:

fm = S / 2 Vm (Hz)
Where fm = maximum allowable input frequency Vm = peak of output waveform S = slew rate This is also called full power bandwidth of Op-Amp

Slew Rate (Example 1.2)

An Op-Amp operates as a unity gain buffer with 3V (peak to peak) square wave input. If Op-Amp is ideal with slew rate 0.5 V/ s, find the maximum frequency of operation

Peak to peak =

3V of square wave = 1.5V

Vm = Vp-p = 3 2 2 fm = S 2 Vm
(0.5/10^-6) = 2 x 1.5 = 53.051kHz

CHAPTER 1: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1.8: Closed Loop Operation 1.8.1: Basic Op-Amp (a) Inverting Op-Amp (b) Non-Inverting Op-Amp (c) Voltage Follower 1.8.2: Integrator 1.8.3: Differentiator 1.8.4: Summing Amplifier 1.8.5: Difference (Subtractor) Amplifier 1.9: 3 Op-Amp Instrumentation Amplifier

Closed-Loop Operation
A. Basic Op-Amps
Closed-loop configuration reduces the gain It involves a feedback from the output to the input Positive feedback: used exclusively with oscillator circuit

B. Integrator

C. Differentiator

D. Summing Amplifiers

Negative feedback: output is fed back to the inverting input through a feedback resistor or capacitor

E. Difference (Subtractor) Amplifiers

Basic Op-Amps
Inverting Amplifier Non-Inverting Amplifier

Voltage Follower

Inverting Amplifier
If I1 R Rf

I1= If+I+V Vo

V1

I- =0

I1= If V1-Vi V -V = i o R Rf V1 -Vo = R Rf Vo -Rf = = ACL Vi R

Vi=0

-V

Important: The Vo can never exceed VCC. The ve sign denotes a 180 degree phase shift between input and output. What happen to ACL if R equals to Rf.

Inverting Amplifier (Example 1.3)

A sine wave of 0.5 V peak voltage is applied to an inverting amplifier using R1 = 10k and Rf = 50 k. It uses the supply voltage of 12 V. Determine the output and sketch the waveform. If now the amplitude of input sine wave is increased to 5V, what will be the output? Is it practically possible? Sketch the waveform.

Gain = Vo = - Rf = - 50 = 10 Vi R1 i) For Vm = 0.5V (Vo)m = (Vin)m x Gain

= 0.5

ii) For Vm = 5V
(Vo)m = (Vin)m x Gain
=5

x 5 = 2.5V peak

x 5 = 25V peak

The input & output waveforms are inverted with respect to each other and shown in Figure 1.8(a).

But Op-Amp saturates at 12V (supply voltage). So portion above +12V and below -12V will be clipped off from the output. So, 25V peak output is not practically possible. The input and output waveforms are shown in Figure 1.8(b)

Inverting Amplifier (Example 1.3) Cont

Figure 1.8: Inverting Amplifier

Non-Inverting Amplifier
V1
Vi=0

+V

+
Vo

V1= V+=V= R V o R+Rf = ACL

_
-V
R Rf

Vo R+Rf R = =1+ f V1 R R

Non-Inverting Amplifier (Example 1.4)

For the Op-Amp configuration shown in Figure 1.10, determine the voltage gain

Calculation:

Vo Vin

= 1+ Rf = 1 + 10 x 10^3 R1 1 x 10^3 = 11

Figure 1.10: Non-Inverting Op-Amp

Voltage Follower
VA = Vin + Vb ..(1)
_
A Vin B

Vo

The node B is at potential Vin . Now at node A is also at the same potential as B Vo = VA...........(2) Equating the equations (1) and (2), Vo = Vin

Also known as source follower, unity gain amplifier, buffer amplifier or isolation amplifier

Bias Current Compensation

For the three basic op-amps, the expression of Vo is considering an ideal op-amp representation However in practical, Vi or Vd, I+, and I- have a very small value

In order to compensate the offset voltage and bias current, those three op-amps are used
Rf R V1 +V
Rc=R||Rf

+V

+
Vo

V1

_
Vo
-V
Voltage Follower

+
Rc=R||Rf

-V

Rf
Non-Inverting Amplifier

_
Inverting Amplifier

Vo
Vin

Integrator
IR= IC
Ic IR R C

V1

I- =0

+V Vo

Vi=0

-V

vo(t) = -1 RC

v1(t) dt

V1-Vi V -V = i o R XC V1 -Vo = R Xc -Vo = 1/sC = -sCVo Vo -1 = = ACL V1 sRC

The output is the integral of the input.

Integration is the operation of summing the area under a waveform or curve over a period of time. This circuit is useful in low-pass filter circuits and sensor. conditioning circuits.

Differentiator
IR Ic C R

IC = I R
+V Vo

V1

I- =0

Vi=0

-V

vo(t) = -RCdv1(t) dt

V1-Vi V -V = i o XC R V1 -Vo = XC R Vo = -sRC = ACL V1

Interchanging the location of the capacitor and the resistor of the integrator circuit results in the circuit above which performs the mathematical function of differentiation. The differentiator takes the derivative of the input. This circuit is useful in high-pass filter circuits.

Summing Amplifiers

Inverting Summer

Non-Inverting Summer

Inverting Summer
If I1

Rf

V1 V2 V3

R1 R2 R3

I- =0

+V Vo

I2

Vi=0

+
I3

-V

I1+I2+I3 = If
V1 V2 V3 -Vo + + = R1 R2 R3 Rf

Vo = -

Rf R R V1+ f V2+ f V3 R1 R2 R3

Non-Inverting Summer
Rf R Applying Superposition Theorem for v+ Step 1: Let V2 = 0

+V Vo Step 2: Let V1 = 0

v + 1 = R2 V1 R1+R2 v + 2 = R1 V2 R1+R2 v+ = v+1+v+2 = R2 R V1+ 1 V2 R1+R2 R1+R2 R2 R V1+ 1 V2 R1+R2 R1+R2

+
V1 V2 R1 R2

-V Step 3: v+=v+1+v+2

Vo = 1 + R f v+ R

Step 4:

Vo = 1 + R f R

Difference (Subtractor) Amplifiers

Case 1: With V2 = 0, the circuit acts as an inverting amplifier

Rf
V1 R2 R1

_
Vo

V2

+
Rf

Vo = - R f V R1 1

Difference (Subtractor) Amplifiers

Case 2: With V1 = 0, the circuit acts as an inverting amplifier

Rf
V1 R2 R1 I I Rf A

I Vo

V2

Vo =

Rf (V V ) 2 1 R1

3 Op-Amp Instrumentation Amplifiers

R2
V1

+ _
A1 Rf R1

R1

_
A3 Vo

+
RG R2

_
A2 V2

Rf

Vo =

R2 1+ 2Rf RG R
1

(V2 V1)

3 Op-Amp Instrumentation Amplifiers (Cont)

Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier:

1) Temperature Controller
2) Temperature Indicator 3) Light Intensity Meter