THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Introduction
The autonomic nervous system controls the autonomic functions of the body i.e. those initiated in the brain below the level of the cerebrum. Although stimulation does not occur voluntarily, the individual may be conscious of its effects. For example, an increase in heart rate.

Effector organs
The effects of the autonomic activity are rapid and the effector organs are:

smooth muscle cardiac muscle glands

Efferent nerves
The efferent (motor) nerves of the autonomic nervous system arise from the brain and emerge at various levels between the midbrain and the sacral region of the spinal cord. Many travel within the same nerve sheath as peripheral nerves.

Divisions
The autonomic nervous system has two divisions:

Sympathetic - stressful situations

Parasympathetic - during rest

They work in an opposing manner, thereby maintaining balance of involuntary functions.

The sympathetic outflow

The parasympathetic outflow

Efferent neurones
Each division of the autonomic nervous system has two efferent neurones between the central nervous sytem and the effector organs:

Preganglionic neurone Postganglionic neurone

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).The sympathetic nervous system activates what is often termed the fight or flight response. Like other parts of the nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system operates through a series of interconnected neurons. Sympathetic neurons are frequently considered part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), although there are many that lie within the central nervous system (CNS). Sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord (which is part of the CNS) communicate with peripheral sympathetic neurons via a series of sympathetic ganglia. Within the ganglia, spinal cord sympathetic neurons join peripheral sympathetic neurons through chemical synapses.

Sympathetic neurons
Spinal cord sympathetic neurons are therefore called presynaptic neurons, while peripheral sympathetic neurons are called postsynaptic (or postganglionic) neurons. At synapses within the sympathetic ganglia, preganglionic sympathetic neurons release acetylcholine, a chemical messenger that binds and activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus, postganglionic neurons principally release noradrenaline (norepinephrine). Prolonged activation can elicit the release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla. Once released, noradrenaline and adrenaline
bind adrenergic receptors on peripheral tissues. Binding to adrenergic receptors
These include: Pupil dilation Increased sweating Increased heart rate Increased blood pressure

causes the effects seen during the

fight-or-flight response.

Sympathetic neurones
Two efferent neurones make up the sympathetic nervous system (SNS):

The preganglionic neurone has its cell body in the lateral column of grey matter in the spinal cord between the levels of the first thoracic and 2nd or 3rd lumbar vertebrae. The nerve fibre of the cell leaves the cord by the anterior root and terminates at a synapse in one of the ganglia either in the lateral chain of sympathetic ganglia or passes through it to one of the paravertebral ganglia. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter at sympathetic ganglia. The postganglionic neurone has its cell body in a ganglion and terminates in the organ or tissue supplied. Noradrenline (norepinephrine) is usually the neurotransmitter at sympathetic effector organs. The major exception is that there is no parasympathetic supply to the sweat glands, the skin and blood vessels of skeletal muscles. These structures are supplied by only sympathetic postganglionic neurones, which are known as sympathetic cholinergic nerves and usually have acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter.

Sympathetic nerves
Sympathetic nerves originate inside the vertebral column, toward the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral cell column (or lateral horn), beginning at the first thoracic segment of the spinal cord and are thought to extend to the second or third lumbar segments. Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, the CNS is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow. Axons of these nerves leave the spinal cord in the ventral branches (rami) of the spinal nerves, and then separate out as 'white rami' (so called from the shiny white sheaths of myelin around each axon) which connect to two chain ganglia extending alongside the vertebral column on the left and right. These elongated ganglia are also known as paravertebral ganglia or sympathetic trunks. In these hubs, connections (synapses) are made which then distribute the nerves to major organs, glands, and other parts of the body.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Two neurones are involved in the transmission of impulses from the source to the effecter organ. The neurotransmitter at both synapses is aetylcholine: Preganglionic - long in comparison to its counterpart in the SNS and has its cell body in the brain or the spinal cord. Those originating in the brain are the cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X arising from nuclei in the mid-brain and brain stem, and their nerve fibres terminate at or near effector organs Postganglionic - usually very short and has its cell body either in a ganglion or in the wall of the organ supplied

Functions of the autonomic nervous system

involved in many complex involuntary reflex activities depends on sensory input to the brain or spinal cord, and or motor output reflex action is rapid contraction, or inhibition on contraction of involuntary (smooth and cardiac) muscles or glandular secretion activities are coordinated subconsciously in the brain some sensory input does not reach consciousness - may result in temporary inhibition of reflex action

Stimulation
Sympathetic stimulation allows the body to function under stress Fight or Flight
Parasympathetic stimulation controls vegetative functions feed or breed or rest and response constant opposition to sympathetic system

Effects of autonomic stimulation sympathetic

Effects of autonomic stimulation parasympathetic

Cardiovascular system decreases the rate and force of the heart beat constricts the coronary arteries, reducing the blood supply to the cardiac muscle Respiratory system contraction of the smooth muscle in the airway walls leading to bronchoconstriction

Effects of autonomic stimulation parasympathetic

Digestive and urinary systems the liver the stomach and small intestine the pancreas urethral and anal sphincters
Eye contraction of the circular muscle fibres of the iris causes the pupil to constrict the eyelids tend to close, giving the appearance of sleepiness the ciliary muscles contract to facilitate near vision.