ANALYSING ARGUMENTS

Engineering a culture of Reasoning

UNIT 2

Outline
Identifying Arguments
Arguments and Nonarguments Well-Crafted Arguments Argument Diagrams

Arguments
An argument is a set of statement s where some of the statement s, called the premises, are intended to support another, called the conclusion
Premises and conclusions are distinct complete statements that are either true or false. They may be found in any number and in any location in a passage or utterance. Be careful since a complete sentence may contain more than one complete statement.

Notice three important things that follow from this definition:

1. Arguments consist entirely of statements, i.e., sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false. Questions, commands, exclamations, and other kinds of nonstatements cannot be parts of arguments. (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be treated as statements.) 2. No single statement, however long, complex, or controversial, is an argument. Arguments always consist of at least two statements. 3. Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended that one statement follows from one or more other statements in the passage. In other words, a passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or reasons why another statement should be accepted as true.

Nonarguments
Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with arguments (Unsupported Assertions) are:

Reports
Set of statements intended to provide information about a situation, topic or event.

Illustrations
Statements together with explanatory or clarifying examples.

Explanatory Statements
Statements that provide a causal or other reason for some phenomenon

Conditional Statements
If then statements

Example
Thirteen years ago Jamaica's crime rate was high, but still nowhere near the horrendous levels that it has now reached. A record number of people were killed in Jamaica last year, police said, confirming the island's reputation as having one of the world's highest murder rates. The majority of the 1,680 killings six more than the previous record set in 2005 involved victims of drug and extortion gangs. Most were shootings. Therefore there possibility of being murdered in Jamaica have increased rapidly over the last decade .

ARGUMENT

Example
The Jamaican economy recorded growth of 0.7 per cent during the third quarter of 2009, this was due mainly to a 1.7 per cent increase in the Goods Producing industries. The economy however declined by 2.3 per cent when compared to the similar quarter in 2008. Both the Goods Producing and Services industries declined by 8.7 per cent and 0.2 per cent respectively.
REPORT

Conveying information about the economy

Example
Prime numbers are divisible only themselves and one. For example, 3, 5, 7, and 11 are prime numbers Jamaica continues to face a variety of development challenges. For instance, the nation struggles with a persistent fiscal deficit, heavy indebtedness and a high crime rate. USAID Non argument s- The passage is intended to illustrate the author's claim, rather than to prove it. An illustration is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true

Example
"Jamaica has missed numerous opportunities to make

necessary adjustments because of the politics of opportunism,"

Capital punishment should be abolished since innocent people may be mistakenly executed
EXPLANATORY STATEMENS - show

why something is the case, not

to prove that it is the case

Example
If Jamaica was serious about education, then teachers would be the highest paid in our society. (Wilmot 'Mutty' Perkins) If Jamaica's economic programme is designed to maintain relative exchange rate stability while lowering interest rates, then fiscal adjustment is unavoidable. (Colin Bullock) The speaker isn't asserting that A or B will happen, he is asserting that B will occur provided that an event has already occurred. It is also a non argument because arguments always contain at least two statements and conditional statements consist of only a single statement

Well-Crafted Arguments
A WCA is an argument that is stated in such a way that its important logical features are explicit.

Well-Crafted Argument Principles:

1. Identify the Premises and the Conclusion. 2. Eliminate excess verbiage (words and statements which add nothing to the argument). 3. Employ uniform language. 4. Be fair and charitable in interpreting an argument. 5. Do not confuse subconclusions with final conclusions. 6. Make implicit premises explicit in a charitable way.

1. Identify the Premises & the Conclusion

Premises of an argument are statements on the basis of which the conclusion is affirmed Statements are sentences or parts of a sentences that are either true or false Premise indicators are words that typically followed by a premise Conclusion indicators are words that are typically followed by a conclusion

Premises & Conclusion Indicators

Since Because for/for one thing for the reason that follows from inasmuch as as shown by given that seeing that owing to seeing that as/as indicated by assuming that considering that therefore hence thus/ergo so follows that consequently which entails that which proves that which implies that necessarily must be the case that which means that demonstrates that we can conclude that as a result

Example: Premises & Conclusion

We should abolish the death penalty because it does not deter crime. conclusion: we should abolish the death penalty premise: the death penalty does not deter crime)
Words like because and since are always followed by a premise.

2. Eliminate Excess Verbiage

Excess verbiage is a word or statement that ads nothing to the argument Four types:
Discounts Repetition Assurances Hedges

Ignore discounts excess verbiage

Discounts
Discount is an acknowledgement of a fact or possibility that might be thought to render the argument invalid, weak, unsound, or uncogent Ignore discount such as:
although even though despite the fact that while it may be true that while I admit that in spite of the fact that

Example - Discount
Although certain events in the subatomic realm occur at random, I still say that the universe as a whole displays a marvelous order. Perhaps the best evidence for this is the fact that scientists continue to discover regularities that can be formulated as laws. Premises: The universe as a whole has a marvelous order. Conclusion: Scientists continue to discover regularities that can be formulated as laws.
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Repetition
Restating premises and conclusions using slightly different language When rewriting the argument, choose the statement that best seems to capture the essence of the claim, and ignore the other version.

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Example - Repetition
The study of logic will increase both your attention span and your patience with difficult concepts. In other words, if you apply yourself to the subject of logic, youll find yourself able to concentrate for longer periods of time. You will also find yourself increasingly able to approach complex material without feeling restless or frustrated Therefore, a course in logic is well worth the effort.
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Assurance
Assurance - words or phrases to indicate a high confidence in the truth of the premises or conclusion. Some common assurances are:
obviously clearly
no one will deny that no doubt no one will deny that
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the fact is that it is undeniable that

it is well known that everyone knows that

Example: Assurance
Sarah will do well on the logic test, for she is bright and has obviously studied very hard. Premises:
Sarah is bright. Sarah has studies very hard.

Conclusion:
Sarah will do well on the test.

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Hedges
indicates either a tentativeness about a premise or inference (the opposite of an assurance) Some common hedges are:
I think that
it seems that

I guess that
in my opinion

perhaps
Maybe I believe that

it is reasonable to suppose that

it is plausible that this seems reasonable
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Example Hedges
In my opinion, it is wrong to kill animals for food. Therefore, we should all be vegetarians. Premises: It is wrong to kill animals for food. Conclusion: We should all be vegetarians.

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Exception for Assurances & Hedges

Sometimes assurances and assurances cannot be dropped from an argument because it contribute to the validity, strength, soundness of cogency of the argument. E. g. 1. If it seems to me that I am in pain, then I am in pain 2. It seems to me that I am in pain So, I am in pain
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3. Employ Uniform Language

There should be a logical link b/t the premises and conclusion of an argument 1. God is love. 2. Love is blind. 3. Ray Charles is blind. Thus, God is Ray Charles. The linkage b/t premises and conclusion is obscured in this case
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3. Employ Uniform Language

Stick with one term throughout the argument as to highlight the logical form of reasoning (see example on page 79)

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4. Be Fair
A fair reconstruction will be loyal to the authors original meaning Consider an argument:
1. Morality is objective only if God exists. 2. Morality is objective. 3. So, God exists.

Now consider this unfair rendition:

1. If Morality is objective then an invisible space ghost exists. 2. Morality is objective. 3. So, an invisible space ghost exists.

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4. Be charitable
The basic idea: when confronted with an interpretative choice, it is best to pick the interpretation that best preserves the rationality of the author. example (pg 80): Oh, yes, we are all deeply appreciative of the full and accurate information from our government during the Vietnam War. So, how can anyone doubt that we received full and accurate information during the war in the Persian Gulf?
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4. Be charitable
well-crafted: 1. Americans did not receive accurate information from their government 2. during the Vietnam War. 3. So, Americans probably did not receive accurate information from their government during the war in the Persian Gulf.

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Argument Diagrams
4. An argument may have several premises that

jointly support the conclusion. 5. An argument may have several premises, each separately supporting the conclusion. 6. It may contain a series of premises, the 1st supporting the 2nd and the 2nd supporting the conclusion which could be the 3rd statement.
Example: 1. 1[Campaign reform is needed] because 2[many contributions to political campaigns are morally equivalent to bribes.] 2

3 2

Argument Diagrams
In the diagram above, the arrow is drawn down from premise to conclusion. The arrow means; (1), the conclusion, is affirmed, on the basis of (2), the premise. In other words, (2) is given as support for (1).

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Argument Diagrams
Premise, sub-conclusion and conclusion Example 1[Charles is unpleasant to work with] since 2[he interrupts people constantly.] Therefore, 3[I do not want to serve on a committee with Charles.] 2 1

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Argument Diagrams
Premise, sub-conclusion and conclusion. Example - The diagram above says that premise (2) supports (1), the sub-conclusion and (1) is given in support of (3).

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Argument Diagrams
Arguments Sometimes two or more premises provide independent support for a single conclusion: Example: - Although 1[Americans like to think they have interfered with other countries only to defend the downtrodden and helpless], 2[there are undeniably aggressive episodes in Americas history.] For example, 3[the USA took Texas from Mexico by force.] 4[The USA seized Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam.] And 5[in the 1st third of the 20th century, the USA intervened militarily in all of the following countries without being invited to do so: Cuba, Nicaragua, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Honduras.]
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Argument Diagrams
The diagram is as follows: 3 4 5 2 NB: Statement (1) is omitted as it is a discount and so it is neither premise nor conclusion. The premises support the conclusion independently.
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Argument Diagrams
Statements joined by the words and or but of ten need to be separated into distinct units for diagramming. Whenever the word and joins two premises, the diagram must indicate whether the premises operate independently or interdependently. Example: 1[The defendant is guilty.] After all, 2[he confessed to stealing the jewels] and 3[he was undoubtedly present at the scene of the crime] since 4[his fingerprints are on the safe.]

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Argument Diagrams
Interdependent Premises: Below 4 2 3 1 The diagram indicates that premises (2) and (3) support conclusion (1) independently. In addition, (4) supports (3) but not (2).

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Summary
1. The principles of WCA are used to help you detect faults and problems with arguments. 2. The principles of WCA enables you to see the content of the argument more clearly. 3. By observing these principles in crafting arguments enables you to distinguish between arguments and non-arguments. 4. Argument diagrams help the reader or the listener to identify the logical connections between statements and propositions in an argument.

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Summary
Argument diagrams helps the reader and listener to determine what ads value to the argument. and what statements detract from the value of it. With the aid of argument diagrams the reader or listener is more able to analyze and meticulously examine the argument to determine validity and invalidity. The diagrams help the reader or listener to identify and discard verbiages such as discounts, hedges, assurances and so on.
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