I.

Fundamental unit of Life

Life is complex phenomena and is perhaps impossible to define Noroman Horowitz, proposed a useful set of criteria for living systems : Life possesses the properties of replication, catalysis and mutability

I. Modern cell theory

Modern Cell theory: 4 fundamental statements
Cells make up all living matter All cells arise from other cells The genetic information required during the maintenance of existing and the production of new cells passes from one generation to the next The chemical reactions of an organism, that is its metabolism, take place in cells

Mitochondria
b)Mitochondria : a double membrane organelle and is the site of energy production. Carbohydrates, fatty acids and amino acids are completely oxidized in the mitochondrian. Energy is conserved in chemical form-ATP

Endoplasmic reticulum
c) ER: 2 types- rough ER -smooth ER Rough ER : studded with ribosomes : protein synthesis Smooth ER:devoid of ribosomes : lipid synthesis

Golgi apparatus
d) Golgi bodies : receive products [ proteins & lipids] from ER via transfer vesicles which is further processed and finally released via secretory vesicles : carbohydrate and lipid precursors are added to proteins to form glycoproteins and lipoproteins.

Lysosome
e) lysosomes:digestive vesicles of animal cells and contain variety of enzymes. Can digest cellular molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids

Peroxisomes / microbodies
f) peroxisomes / microbodies : contain oxidative enzymes and carry out oxidative process, which produces H2O2[ toxic substances] These H2O2 further utilized in oxidation of other substances or degraded by the enzyme catalase

Chloroplast
g) chloroplast : is also a double membrane organelle of plant cell Contains a biomolecule, chlorophyll which captures sunlight and is involved in photosynthesis

Vacoules
h) Vacoules: are single membrane structures. Enlargement of these fluid filled organelles is related to cell growth. Also store solutes, water soluble plant pigments, salts, dissolved sugars and proteins.

Chromosome
Most bacterial genes: encoded in a single large circular molecule of DNA, the chromosome. Not all bacterial genes are encoded within the chromosome. Many bacteria contain one or more different small circular DNA molecules, termed plasmids

Chromosomes [contd]
Plasmids : are small circular DNA molecules, capable of self replicating and encode a variety of cellular functions. Some plasmids encode enzymes that inactivate antibiotics or other toxic compounds that are present in cells environment.

Chromosomes [ contd ]
Nuclear DNA in eukaryotes is organized in complexes with proteins as nucleoprotein complexes called as chromatin. The protein components of chromatin are basic proteins called histones.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of biomolecules with a structural formula of (C.H2O)n ,where n = or > 3. The basic units of carbohydrates are known as monosaccharides.

Carbohydrates [ contd ]

Carbohydrates can be grouped into: a) monosaccharides

b) disaccharides

c) polysaccharides

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are classified according to the chemical nature of their carbonyl group and the number of C atoms. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the sugar is called as an aldose [ ex : glucose ] If the carbonyl group is a ketone,, the sugar is a ketose [ ex : fructose ]

Monosaccharides [ contd ]
The smallest monosaccharides, those with 3 carbon atoms are called trioses. Those with 4,5,6 and 7 C atoms are respectively called as tetroses,pentoses,hexoses and heptoses.

Monosaccharides
Alcohols react with the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones to form hemiacetals and hemiketals respectively The cyclic forms of glucose and fructose with 6 and 5 membered rings are known as glucopyranose and fructofuranose

Disaccharides
Disaccharides are made of 2 monosaccharide subunits [ ex :sucrose, lactose and maltose] Sucrose : is the most abundant disacch. and is made of glucose and fructose subunits linked by alpha 1,2 glycosidic bond

 Lactose : made of galactose and glucose subunits linked by beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds
Maltose : is made of 2 glucose residues and are linked by alpha1,4 glycosidic bond

Polysachharides
Polysaccharides includes : Cellulose and chitin structural polysacch.
Starch and glycogen storage polysacch.

Polysaccharides [ contd ]
Cellulose : is the primary structural component of plant cell walls.
Cellulose is a linear polymer of upto 15,000s D-glucose residues linked by beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds

Polysaccharides [ contd ]
Chitin : is the principle structural component of the exoskeletons of invertebrates [ crustaceans,insects] and is also present in the cell wall of fungi and algae

Polysaccharides [ contd]
Starch : is deposited in the cytoplasm of plant cell as insoluble granules and is composed of alpha amylose and amylopectin. a) alpha amylose is a linear polymer of several 1000s glucose residues linked by alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds

Polysaccharides [ contd ]
b) amylopectin: consists mainly of alpha 1,4 linked glucose residues but is a branched molecule with alpha 1,6 branch points for every 24- 30 glucose residues.

Polysaccharides [ contd ]
Glycogen : is most prevalent in the skeletal muscle and liver and occurs in the form of cytoplasmic granules. The primary structure of glycogen resembles that of amylopectin but, glycogen more highly branched with branch points occurring every 8-12 glucose residues.

Lipids

Biological membranes are organized assemblies of lipids and proteins with small amount of carbohydrate.

Lipids [ contd]
Lipids classification: Fatty acids Triacylglycerol Glycerophospholipids Sphingolipids Cholesterol

Lipids [ contd ]
Fatty acids : are carboxylic acids with long chains hydrocarbon side groups.
Fatty acids : 2 type a) Saturated fatty acids : normal constituent of higher plant and animals [ ex: palmitic and stearic acids ] b) Unsaturated fatty acids: are having one or more double bonds and are also present in plant and animal lipids.

Lipids [ contd ]
Triacylglycerols :are non polar, water insoluble,fatty acid triesters of glycerols.
Triacylglycerol function as energy reservoirs in animals and therefore the most abundant class of lipids

Glycerophospholipids
Glycerophospholipids are the major lipid components of the biological membrane. They consists of glycerol-3 phosphate esterified at its C1and C2 positions to fatty acids and C3 position attached to a phosphoryl group.

Lipids [ contd ]
Sphingolipids : are also major membrane components and are derivatives of C 18 amino alcohols sphingosine, dihydrosphingosine and their C16, C17,C19 and C 20 homologs

Lipids [ contd ]
Different types of sphingolipids: Sphingomyelins Cerebrosides Glucocerebrosides Gangliosides

Lipids [ contd ]
Cholesterol : is a major component of animal plasma membranes and are derivatives of cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene. It is the metabolic precursor of steroid hormones, which regulate physiological functions ( sexual development and carbohydrate metabolism