Lecture 11.

Real Heat Engines and

refrigerators (Ch. 4)
Stirling heat engine
Internal combustion engine (Otto cycle)
Diesel engine
Steam engine (Rankine cycle)
Kitchen Refrigerator
Carnot Cycle
1 2 isothermal expansion (in contact with T
H
)
2 3 isentropic expansion to T
C

3 4 isothermal compression (in contact with T
C
)
4 1 isentropic compression to T
H

(isentropic adiabatic+quasistatic)
Efficiency of Carnot
cycle for an ideal gas:
(Pr. 4.5)
H
C
T
T
e =1
max
T
S
T
H
T
C

1
2 3
4
On the S -T diagram, the work done is
the area of the loop:
e
n
t
r
o
p
y


c
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
d

i
n

g
a
s

} } }
= = PdV TdS dU 0
The heat consumed at T
H
(1 2) is the area
surrounded by the broken line:
( )
C H H H
S S T Q =
S - entropy
contained in gas
- is not very practical (too slow), but operates at the maximum efficiency allowed by
the Second Law.
T
C

P
V
T
H

1
2
3
4
absorbs
heat
rejects heat
Stirling heat engine
Stirling engine a simple, practical heat
engine using a gas as working substance. Its
more practical than Carnot, though its
efficiency is pretty close to the Carnot
maximum efficiency. The Stirling engine
contains a fixed amount of gas which is
transferred back and forth between a "cold"
and and a "hot" end of a long cylinder. The
"displacer piston" moves the gas between the
two ends and the "power piston" changes the
internal volume as the gas expands and
contracts.
T
4
1
2
3
V
2

V
1

T
1

T
2

Page 133, Pr. 4.21
Stirling heat engine
The gases used inside a Stirling engine never leave the engine. There
are no exhaust valves that vent high-pressure gasses, as in a gasoline or
diesel engine, and there are no explosions taking place. Because of this,
Stirling engines are very quiet. The Stirling cycle uses an external heat
source, which could be anything from gasoline to solar energy to the heat
produced by decaying plants. Today, Stirling engines are used in some
very specialized applications, like in submarines or auxiliary power
generators, where quiet operation is important.
T
4
1
2
3
V
2

V
1

T
1

T
2

Efficiency of Stirling Engine
T
4
1
2
3
V
2

V
1

T
1

T
2

1-2 ( ) ( ) 0 0
2
3
12 1 2 1 2 12
= > = = W T T nR T T C Q
V
2-3
23 23
1
2
2 2 23
0 ln
2
1
2
1
W Q
V
V
nRT
V
dV
nRT PdV Q
V
V
V
V
= >
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
} }
3-4 ( ) ( ) 0 0
2
3
34 2 1 2 1 34
= < = = W T T nR T T C Q
V
4-1
41 41
2
1
1 1 41
0 ln
1
2
1
2
W Q
V
V
nRT
V
dV
nRT PdV Q
V
V
V
V
= <
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
} }
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
max 1 2 1 2
2
1 2 1 2
1 2 2 1 2
41 23
23 12
1
/ ln 2
3
/ ln
/ ln
2
3
1
e V V T T
T
V V T T
V V T T T
Q Q
Q Q
W
Q
e
H
> +

+
=

+
= =
In the Stirling heat engine, a working substance, which may be assumed to be an
ideal monatomic gas, at initial volume V
1
and temperature T
1
takes in heat at
constant volume until its temperature is T
2
, and then expands isothermally until its
volume is V
2
. It gives out heat at constant volume until its temperature is again T
1

and then returns to its initial state by isothermal contraction. Calculate the efficiency
and compare with a Carnot engine operating between the same two temperatures.
Internal Combustion Engines (Otto cycle)
Otto cycle. Working substance a mixture of air
and vaporized gasoline. No hot reservoir thermal
energy is produced by burning fuel.
0 1 intake (fuel+air is pulled into the cylinder
by the retreating piston)
1 2 isentropic compression
2 3 isochoric heating
3 4 isentropic expansion
4 1 0 exhaust
P
V
1
2
3
4
i
g
n
i
t
i
o
n

e
x
h
a
u
s
t

V
1

V
2

P
atm

intake/exhaust
0
- engines where the fuel is burned inside the engine
cylinder as opposed to that where the fuel is burned
outside the cylinder (e.g., the Stirling engine). More
economical than ideal-gas engines because a small
engine can generate a considerable power.
Otto cycle (cont.)
S
V
1
2
3
4
V
1

V
2

S
2

S
1

C
Q
H
Q
0 = Q
0 = Q
1
2 1
1 2
1 1
V T
e
V T

| |
= =
|
\ .
1
2
V
V
- the compression ratio
The efficiency:
(Pr. 4.18)
= 1+2/f - the adiabatic exponent
For typical numbers V
1
/V
2
~8 , ~ 7/5 e = 0.56, (in reality, e = 0.2 0.3)

(even an ideal efficiency is smaller than the second law limit 1-T
1
/T
3
)
2
V
- minimum cylinder volume
- maximum cylinder volume
1
V
P
V
1
2
3
4
i
g
n
i
t
i
o
n

e
x
h
a
u
s
t

V
1

V
2

P
atm

intake/exhaust
0
Diesel engine
c
h
1
Q
e
Q
o
o
=
( )
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
V
V
V
V
V
e
V

| |
=
|

\ .
(Pr. 4.20)
( )
4 1 c 4 1
4 1: isochoric, ,
2
f
V V Q nR T T o = =
1 1
1 1 2 2
1 2: adiabatic, TV T V

=
( )
h 3 2
2
2 3: isobaric,
2
f
Q nR T T o
+
=
1 1
3 3 4 4
3 4: adiabatic, TV T V

=
Steam engine (Rankine cycle)
heat
work
h
e
a
t


hot reservoir, T
H

cold reservoir, T
C

Sadi Carnot
Boiler
Condenser
H
Q
C
Q
T
u
r
b
i
n
e

P
u
m
p

P
V
water
steam
Water+steam
1
2
3
4
Turbine
Boiler
condense
processes
at P = const,
o Q=dH
Pump
NOT an ideal gas!
( ) ( )
( )
3 2
4 1
,
1 2: isothermal adiabatic
2 3: isobaric,
3 4: adiabatic
4 1: isobaric,
P P
h
h
H U PV Q H
Q H H
Q H H
o
o
o
= + = A
~
=

=
Steam engine (Rankine cycle)
heat
work
h
e
a
t


hot reservoir, T
H

cold reservoir, T
C

Sadi Carnot
Boiler
Condenser
H
Q
C
Q
T
u
r
b
i
n
e

P
u
m
p

P
V
water
steam
Water+steam
1
2
3
4
Turbine
Boiler
condense
processes
at P = const,
o Q=dH
Pump
( )
( )
gas gas liquid
3 4 3 4 4
gas liquid
4 4 4
1
1
S S S x S x S
H x H x H
= = +
= +
4 1 4 1
3 2 3 1
1 1
H H H H
e
H H H H

= ~

( )
4.12
2 1
Here , water is almost incompressible. H H ~
Kitchen
Refrigerator
A liquid with suitable characteristics (e.g., Freon) circulates
through the system. The compressor pushes the liquid
through the condenser coil at a high pressure (~ 10 atm).
The liquid sprays through a throttling valve into the
evaporation coil which is maintained by the compressor at
a low pressure (~ 2 atm).
cold reservoir
(fridge interior)
T=5
0
C
hot reservoir
(fridge exterior)
T=25
0
C
P
V
l
i
q
u
i
d

gas
liquid+gas
1
2
3
4
compressor
condenser
throttling
valve
evaporator
processes
at P = const,
o Q=dH
The enthalpies H
i
can be found in tables.
( )
1 4 1 4
2 3 1 4 2 1
C
H C
Q H H H H
COP
Q Q H H H H H H

= = =

( )
( )
liquid liquid gas
3 4 3 4 4
2 1 2 2 2 2
, 1
,
H H H x H x H
S S T H T P
= = +
=