Environmental Aspects of Power Generation

Various kinds of fuel may be burned in thermal power plants, all of which release emissions into the air. Some fuels that are well known include fossil fuels: Coal Natural gas, Oil Methane (produced by biomass) and wood waste. Non-fossil : Nuclear
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The emissions can vary dramatically, depending upon the fuel being burned and the plant technology.
Some of the environmental impacts which may be associated with thermal power plants include: Air pollution/airborne emissions, including particulates, toxics, greenhouse gases and heat Risk of spills of fuel on land, or contamination of water or groundwater 2 Noise pollution

The Thermal Plants produce emissions : 1. Fossil Power Plants Sulfur Oxides(SOx) Nitrogen Oxides(NOx) Carbon Oxides(CO2,CO) Particulate Matter Thermal Pollution
2. Nuclear Power Plants Radioactivity release Radioactive waste Thermal pollution

Air Pollution
Definition: Any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man and his environment. The substances include - Gases ( SOx , NOx, CO, CO2, HCs) - Particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols) - Radioactive materials etc.
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TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS Primary pollutants are emitted directly from the sources into the atmosphere, which include: Particulate matter: Ash, Smoke, Dust, Fumes, Mist and
Spray

Inorganic gases: SOx, H2S, NOx, NH3, CO,CO2, & H2F Olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons; and Radioactive compounds The primary pollutants in sufficient concentrations to be of immediate concern are: Particulate matter, SOx, NOx, CO, and HCs. 5

Secondary Pollutants Generated over time in the atmosphere from chemical reactions involving primary pollutants.
The secondary pollutants include: SO3, NO2, Peroxyacetylnitrate(PAN), O3, Aldehydes, Ketones, and various sulphate & nitrate salts. Secondary pollutants are formed from chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.
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The reaction mechanisms are influenced by such factor as Concentration of reactants Degree of photo-activation Local topography Meteorological forces and Moisture content in atmosphere

Sources of air pollutants

Industry
Fossil fuel combustion, smelting

Transport
Fossil fuel combustion

Agriculture
Animal effluent, fertilizers, biomass burning

Point and Diffuse sources

Domestic
Fossil fuel combustion
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MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS

SO2 NOx CO Gas Gases Gas Fossil fuel combustion, natural Fossil fuel combustion, natural Fossil fuel combustion

VOCs
NH3 TSP Heavy metals

Gases
Gas

Cars, organic solvents, natural

Agriculture, natural

Particulate Oxidation, fossil fuel burning, dust Particulate Metal processing, fossil fuel burning

Acidic Particulate Secondary - reactions of pollutants from fossil aerosols fuel burning

Ozone

Gas

Secondary from reaction of NOx and VOCs(volatile organic carbon) under sunlight
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Air pollutant pathways

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AIR POLLUTION SOURCES, PATHWAYS AND RECEPTORS

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Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in thermal power plants.
Some industrial processes, such as production of paper, power plants and smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide. It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulfur dioxide can lead to lung diseases.
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SO2 is a colourless gas with a characteristic, sharp, pungent odour.

It is moderately soluble in water(11.3g/100ml) forming weakly acidic H2SO3. It is oxidized slowly in clean air to sulphur trioxide. In a polluted atmosphere, SO2 reacts photochemically or catalytically with other pollutants or normal atmospheric constituents to form SO3, H2S, H2SO4, and salts of H2SO4.
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Nitrogen oxides (Nox NO and NO2) causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal. Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters. Nitrous oxide(N2O), Nitric oxide(NO) and Nitrogen dioxide(NO2) are formed in appreciable quantities in the atmosphere.
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 NO is a colorless, odorless gas produced largely by fuel combustion. It is oxidized to NO2 in a pollutant atmosphere through photochemical secondary reaction. NO2 is a brown pungent gas with an irritating odor. NO2 is emitted by fuel combustion and nitric acid plants Small concentrations of NO2 are detected in the lower stratosphere( oxidation of NO by Ozone). 15

Oxides of Carbon: CO and CO2(largest)

Carbon monoxide (CO): colorless, odorless gas is produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels including petrol, diesel, wood, natural and synthetic products.

It has affinity towards the hemoglobin of the bloodstream and is a dangerous asphyxiant.
It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy. The rate of oxidation of CO to CO2 in the atmosphere seems to be very slow.
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Carbon dioxide (CO2): is more abundant and is largely contributed by power plant.
CO2 is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.

Hydrocarbons(HCs) The gaseous and volatile liquid hydrocarbons are of particular interest as air pollutants. HCs can be saturated or unsaturated, branched or straight-chain or ring structure.
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In saturated class, CH4 is by far the most abundant hydrocarbon constituting about 40-80% of total HCs present in an urban atmosphere. The unsaturated class includes Alkenes(Olefins) and Acetylenes. Among the alkenes the prominent pollutants are Ethylene and propane. The HCs in air by themselves alone cause no harmful effects. They are of concern because they undergo chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight.
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Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)

consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, and vapour that can remain suspended for extended periods.

SPM can be suspended droplets or solid particles or mixtures or the two. Particulates can be composed of inert or extremely reactive material ranging in size 0.1-100m.
These reactive materials could be oxidized or may react chemically with the environment. SPM is the main source of haze which reduces 19 visibility.

The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodge in our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory problems.

The classification of various particulates include:

Dust
It contains particles of 1-200m size.
These are formed by natural disintegration of rock and soil or by mechanical processes of grinding and spraying. They have large settling velocities and are removed from air by gravity and other inertial processes. 20

Smoke
It consists of fine particles of 0.01-1m size, which can be liquid or solid and are formed by combustion or chemical processes.

Fumes
These are solid particles of the size ranging from0.1 to1m. Fumes are normally released from chemical and metallurgical processes.

Mist
It made of liquid droplets smaller than 10m which are formed by condensation in the atmosphere or are released from industrial operations.

Fog
It is the mist in which the liquid is water and is sufficiently dense to obscure vision. 21

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Particulate Emission Control Particle sizes range from 0.1m to 100m. The choice of collection devices depends upon: Physical and chemical characteristics of particulates Particulate size and concentration in the gas Volume of particulates to be handled and Temperature and Humidity of gaseous medium Toxicity and inflammability
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Particulate Control Mechanisms

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Gravitational Settling Centrifugal Impaction Inertial Impaction Direct interception Diffusion Electrostatic Precipitation

Particulate Control Equipment

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Gravitational Settling Chambers Cyclone Separators Fabric Filters Electrostatic Precipitator Wet Collectors(Scrubbers)
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Gravitational Settling Chambers

Used to remove large abrasive particles(> 50) from gas steams Offer low pressure drop and require low maintenance Collection efficiency can be improved by inserting several trays Used as pre-cleaners The minimum particle size that can be removed from the gas with 100% efficiecy is:

d p min

8Q nWLg ( p g )

Where Q Volumetric flow rate of gas steam n No. of trays of L X W X H

p and g densities of particle and gas respectively

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CYCLONES
Cyclones operate to collect relatively large size particulate matter from a gaseous stream through the use of centrifugal forces.

Dust laden gas is made to rotate in a decreasing diameter pathway forcing solids to the outer edge of the gas stream for deposition into the bottom of the cyclone.
Efficiencies of 90% in particle sizes of 10 26 microns or greater are possible.

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Multiple Cyclones(Multi clone)

Smaller particles need lower air flow rate to separate. Multiple cyclones allow lower air flow rate, capture particles to 2m

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Performance & Collection Efficiency

Linear increases with: particle density, gas stream velocity, and rotational passes Linear decrease with fluid viscosity Exponential increase with particle diameter

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Limitations / Advantages / Problems Reduces internal access needs Optimal flow rate difficult to adjust Prone to internal erosion / corrosion Operation at elevated temperatures possible Low efficiency for small diameter material Hopper recirculation / flow distribution problems High energy costs for volumetric flow requirements Dew point agglomeration, bridging, and plugging Few moving parts, few mechanical / electrical ignition sources
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BAGHOUSES(Fabric Filters) Baghouses utilize the principles to remove solids from a gaseous exhaust stream are: Sieving(Direct Interception) Impaction, Agglomeration(Diffusion) and Electrostatic Filtration Baghouses maximize the filtration area by configuring the fabric filter media into a series of long small-diameter fabric tubes referred to as bags.
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Baghouse are tightly packed into a housing wherein the dust laden air moves across the bag fabric thereby removing it from the gas stream and building up a filter cake which further enhances air cleaning. The filter cake is removed to hoppers by various shaking means.

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Fabric-filter Baghouse

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Performance & Efficiency Parameters The operating pressure drop across the bags is described by: Pressure drop dP = SeV + KCV2t
where Se = drag coefficient V = velocity K = filter cake coefficient C = inlet dust concentration t = Collection running time
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Limitations / Advantages / Problems

High collection efficiencies Internal condensation / corrosion Over-temperature limitations Need for internal inspection / access Possible to have variable flow rates Plugging / short-circuiting / break-through/ collection media fouling Accumulation of flammable gases/ dusts and ignition sources Unexpected bag failure due to changes in operating parameters
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ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS(ESP)
This utilizes gaseous ions to charge particles which are then moved through an electric field to be deposited onto charged collection plates. ESP consists of two set of electrodes: 1. Collection Electrodes rows of electrically grounded vertical parallel plates 2. Discharge Electrodes wire electrodes centrally located. The wires carry a unidirectional, negatively charged, high voltage(20-100kV) current from an external source.
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The applied high voltage generates a unidirectional, non-uniform electric field whose magnitude is greatest near the discharge electrode.

When that voltage is high enough, a blue luminous glow, called a corona, is produced around them. The corona is an indication of the generation of negatively charged gas ions. The gas close to the negative electrode is ionized upon passing through the corona.
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The charged gas ions travel from the wires to the grounded collection electrodes as result of the strong electric field between them.
The electrostatic field then draws the particles to the collector surface where they are deposited. Collected particulate material is then removed by rapping or washing of the plates. Usually, a large number of these collectors are placed in parallel in a single housing.
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The internal gas passages within a precipitator are relatively open with small pressure drops and lower energy costs to move the gas stream.
Collection Efficiency High collection efficiencies are possible, but efficiency may drastically change with changes in operating parameters.

The efficiency is a function of gas flow rate and precipitator size is given by Deutsch equation.
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Performance & Efficiency Parameters Collection Efficiency(Deutsch equation) = 1 - e Vm.A/Q where A = collecting electrode area
Q = volumetric gas flow rate Vm = particle migration velocity

and 12 2 2.95 X 10 p( E / s) d Drift/migration velocity = Vm

Where E = Applied voltage(V) s = Distance between electrodes(m) d = Particle diameter(m) g = Gas viscosity(kg/m.s) p = Particle dielectric constant(1.5 2.4)

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Limitations / Advantages / Problems

Large installation space required High efficiencies for small particles possible Low pressure drops and air moving costs High potential for ignition sources Re-entrainment, spark-over, back corona problems High temperature operation possible Susceptible to changes in moisture and resistivity
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GASEOUS POLLUTANT CONTROL

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ABSORPTION & WET SCRUBBING EQUIPMENT

The removal of gases and particulate matter by causing the gaseous contamination to become dissolved into the liquid stream and the solids to be entrained in the liquid. The rate of gas transfer into the liquid is dependent upon the solubility, mass transfer mechanism, and equilibrium concentration of the gas in solution.
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Gas collection efficiencies in the range of 99% are possible. The rate of particulate matter collection at constant pressure drops is inversely proportional to the aerodynamic mean dia. of the particulate matter and scrubber droplets.

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Performance & Efficiency Parameters

For gas collection, the maximum equilibrium concentration in solution is described by Henry's law: [Cgas] = (Hk) [Cliquid]

Where (Hk) is Henry's constant [Cgas] is the concentration in the gas stream [Cliquid] is the concentration in the liquid stream

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Limitations / Advantages / Problems

High pressure drops required Internal plugging, corrosion, erosion Increased need for internal inspection Formation / precipitation of solids Few internal moving parts Reduced opportunity for gas ignition Gas and liquid chemistry control important Increased relative velocity between scrubbing the fluid and gas stream, increases efficiency for solids
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THANK YOU

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