Biology 109

lab handouts ($15)

available in Biology Office KC 231

Biological Hierarchy
atom molecules biosphere ecosystem organs organelles cells tissues

community

organ systems

population

organism

Emergent Properties
- With each step upward in biological hierarchy, novel properties emerge that were not present at the simpler levels of organization - Result from interactions between the components - Structural arrangement of parts important - organism is a living whole greater than the sum of its parts

Fundamental Properties of Life

1. Growth and development

2. Reproduction (life comes from life)

3. Response to environment

4. Evolutionary Adaptation

Fundamental Properties of Life

4. Metabolism - the sum total of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms (energy transfer) 5. Homeostasis regulatory mechanisms that maintain the organisms internal environment within tolerable limits 6. Organized structure the cell is the basic unit of life (unicellular or multicellular)

7. Organic composition
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

Element
-the smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down into a simpler substance by chemical reactions (composed of atoms)

- 92 naturally occurring elements (25 essential for life)

Periodic Table of Elements

Macronutrients
- required for life - nine elements make up 99.5% of plant living matter
Naturally Occurring Elements in the Human Body
Percent Dry Weight

18.5 65.0 9.5 3.3 0.4 1.5 0.1 1.0 0.3

Micronutrients
- required for life - trace elements

molecule two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

O2

N2

NaCl

CO2

CH4

compound any substance formed by two or more elements in a fixed ratio

NaCl

CO2

CH4

The Atom
- the smallest part of an element that retains the physical and chemical properties of that element
atomic nucleus neutron no charge

8n 8p

proton positive charge electron negative charge shell

Atom
atomic number the number of protons in the atomic nucleus Hydrogen = 1 Carbon = 6 Oxygen = 8
8n 8p

Uranium = 92
Section of Periodic Table

Atomic number

Atom
atomic mass (mass number) the number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus

Hydrogen = 2 Carbon = 12
8n 8p

Oxygen = 16

Isotope
Atoms of an element with a different mass number - different number of neutrons in the atomic nucleus
12C 13C 14C

6n 6p

7n 6p

8n 6p

stable isotopes

radioactive isotope nucleus decays spontaneously (releases particles of energy)

Chemical Bonds
Valence - the bonding capacity of an atom

- number of unpaired electrons in the outer orbital (shell)

C Na

Atoms

Cl

He

Chemical Bonds
Covalent Bond

Ionic Bond

Hydrogen Bond

Ionic Bond
- Chemical bond formed when ions of opposite charges attract - one atom donates an electron to another to form a positive and negative ion (charged particle)

Covalent Bond
-chemical bond formed when atoms share a pair (at least one pair) of electrons
H H

Covalent Bond
Single Double Triple

Campbell & Reece 2005

Covalent Bond
nonpolar covalent bond when electron pairs are shared equally

Covalent Bond
polar covalent bond when electron pairs are shared unequally between two atoms due to differences in their ability to attract electrons
O

O H H

Hydrogen Bond
- weak chemical bond formed when molecules of opposite charges attract (polar molecules)

Campbell & Reece 2005

Water - Hydrogen bonds between molecules

Water - ionic molecules tend to dissolve in water

Molecules of Life Organic Molecules

Carbon-based covalent bonds

(C, H, O, N, P, S)
Macromolecule (polymers) complex organic molecule formed by joining similar or identical subunits (monomers)

Major Classes of Molecules of Life

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates
- Includes sugars, starches, cellulose - Composed of C, H, O

Functions:

sources of energy
structural materials

Monosaccharides
Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides Simple Sugars, smallest carbohydrate molecules

General Formula = CnH2nOn (n=3-7)

Examples:

Ribose C5H10O5
Glucose, Fructose C6H12O6

Monosaccharides

Campbell & Reece 2005

Monosaccharides

Glucose

Fructose

Disaccharides
sugar consisting of two monosaccharides (simple sugar molecules) Sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose Maltose (malt sugar) = glucose + glucose

Dehydration Synthesis / Hydrolysis

Dehydration synthesis -the synthesis of a compound or molecule involving the removal of water - require energy input Hydrolysis -the splitting of one molecule into two by the addition of the H+ and OH- ions of water

- yield energy

Polysaccharides a polymer composed of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides

examples: repeating glucose molecules

starch - energy storage (plants)

glycogen energy storage (fungi, bacteria, and animals)

cellulose structural molecule (plants)

Polysaccharides

Campbell & Reece 2005

Cellulose

Campbell & Reece 2005

Lipids composed of C and H, some O insoluble in water includes triglycerides (fats, oils), waxes, steroids, and phospholipids

Lipids energy storage (trigylcerides) structural (phospholipids, cholesterol, waxes) hormones (steroids)

Trigylcerides
a fat or an oil source of energy

three fatty acids bonded to a molecule of glycerol

Trigylceride

Campbell & Reece 2005

Saturated Fats fatty acids contain all single bonds between the carbon atoms and have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms (saturated with hydrogen)

Unsaturated Fats one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms and consequently fewer hydrogen atoms

Waxes long chain lipids combine with cutin and/or suberin to help prevent water loss

From the leaves of the carnauba wax palm from Brazil

Phospholipid
two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol

occurs in a bilayer in biological membranes

Steroids four fused rings of carbon (steroid backbone) with various side chains

Structural molecule (Cholesterol)

Hormones (Testosterone)
testosterone

Steroids
sterol OH group attached to C-3 important components of membranes, stabilize phospholipid tails

Proteins large complex macromolecules composed of amino acids

contain C, H, O, N, and S
function:

structural materials
enzymes (biological catalysts)

regulatory molecules
transport molecules

Amino Acids 20 different amino acids backbone with 1 N and 2 C atoms, differ only in the side group (called an R-group)

Amino group

Carboxyl group

Ionized form found in cells (pH = 7)

Amino Acids

R-groups
nonpolar hydrophobic (aggregate on inside of protein)

R-groups
polar, uncharged hydrophilic (surface of proteins)

R-groups
polar, negatively charged - hydrophilic polar, positively charged - hydrophilic

- both are usually found on the surface of proteins

Protein Primary Structure amino acids joined together by peptide bonds to form a long chain (polypeptide)

Campbell & Reece 2005

Protein Structure

Protein Structure
Primary amino acid chain, covalent bonds (peptide) Secondary alpha helix, beta pleated sheet, hydrogen bonds

Protein Structure
Tertiary R-group interactions, attraction, repulsion, disulfide bonds (Cys-Cys) Quaternary two or more amino acid chains linked together (various types of interactions)

Protein Structure

Protein Structure
Denaturation disruption of the tertiary structure of proteins (unfolds) - Caused by physical (heat) or chemical (pH) changes in the environment - causes a loss of the biological activity of the protein

Nucleic Acids contain C, H, O, N and P composed of nucleotides Two types: 1. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2. ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Nucleotide
single unit of nucleic acid composed of

- a phosphate group
- a five-carbon sugar ribose or deoxyribose - a nitrogenous base (purine or a pyrimidine)

Nucleotide

Campbell & Reece 2005

Nitrogenous bases

Uracil (in RNA)

Campbell & Reece 2005

DNA

- hereditary material of life

- double helix

ATP
energy carrier in the cell (nucleotide) ATP = Adenine + ribose + 3 phosphates

Secondary Metabolites (Compounds)

- Produced along secondary metabolic pathways - Many are derived from lipids, amino acids, carbohydrates - Diverse functions

- chemical signals
- attract pollinators - inhibit bacterial and fungal pathogens - deter grazing by animals and insects - inhibit growth of competing plants

Secondary Compounds
Used by human society medicine, flavoring, toxins, perfumes

Four Main Classes Of Secondary Compounds:

1. Terpenes (essential oils, latex, taxol, carotenoids)

2. Glycosides (digitoxin, cyanogenic glyc.) 3. Phenolics (flavonoids, tannins, lignin) 4. Alkaloids (caffeine, nicotine, morphine)

Secondary Compounds