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Introduction to Computers

By Pravin

History of Computing
abacus may be considered the first computer.

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Nearly 5,000 years ago the abacus emerged in China. The

This device allowed its users to make computations using a

system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.

History of Computing

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In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented a numerical wheel calculator

to help his father with his duties. The Pascaline, a brass rectangular box, used eight movable dials to add sums up to eight figures long.

History of Computing

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In 1671, Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz invented a computer

(Stepped Reckoner) that was built in 1694. It could add and multiply

History of Computing

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In 1820 Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, invented a

machine that could perform the four basic mathematic functions add, subtract, multiply and divide. It was called arithometer.

History of Computing
mathematics professor, Charles Babbage.
Powered by steam engine.

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The real beginnings of computers began with an English

The Analytical Engine consisted of over 50,000 components. The basic design of included input devices in the form of

perforated cards containing operating instructions and a store for memory of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long.

History of Computing

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In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith, created a

machine that used cards to store data information which was fed into a machine and compiled the results mechanically.
Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the business

world, founding Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, later to become International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924.

History of Computing
In 1933, Howard H. Aiken, a

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Harvard engineer working with IBM, succeeded in producing an all-electronic calculator called MARKI.
The computer was created

for the U.S. Navy. It was about 50 feet long and contained about 500 miles of wiring and 750000 parts.

History of Computing

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Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was

the first general-purpose computer, developed by John P. Eckert and John W. Mauchly
It consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5

million soldered joints, and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power.

History of Computing
In

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1945, John Von Neumann proposed the design of a computer with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data.

The key element to the Von

Neumann architecture was the CPU, which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source.
In

1949

EDVAC

History of Computing

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Maurice Wilkes and team developed, the EDSAC (Electronic

Delay Storage Automatic Computer), which was closely based on the EDVAC.
The clock speed of the EDSAC was 500 kHz; most

instructions take about 1500 ms to execute.

Its I/O was on paper tape, and a set of constant registers was

provided for booting.

History of Computing

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In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer),

built by Remington Rand, became one of the first commercially available computers. It uses machine or binary language.

Summary-Hsitory of Computers
Year ~5000B C 1642 1671 Computer/Devic e Abacus Pascaline Stepped Reckoner Inventor Chinese Blaiz Pascal Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz Type Remark

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First known calculation device

Mechanica Can add numbers upto 8 l digits Mechanica Can add and multiply. l Working model available in 1694 Mechanica could perform the four l basic mathematic functions add, subtract, multiply and divide

1820

Arithometer

Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar

1821

Difference Engine

Charles Babbage (Father of Computers)

Mechanica Introduced the concept l of stored program and memory in computers

Summary-Hsitory of Computers
Year 1933 Computer/Device MARK-I Inventor Howard H. Aiken Type Electronic Remark

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about 50 feet long and contained about 500 miles of wiring and 750000 parts First general-purpose computer, Contain about 18000 vacuum tubes

1946

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)

John P. Eckert and Electronic John W. Mauchly

1949

Electronic Discrete Eckert , Mauchly Variable Automatic and John von Computer Neumann. (EDVAC)

Electronic

Concept of CPU was first used in this computer.

1949

Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer

Maurice Wilkes

Electronic

I/O was based upon paper tape

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Generations of Computers

First Generation : 1940-1956

Technology was based on the vacuum

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tubes.
These were very expensive and very bulky

in size.
They generated very large amount of heat

thus required very heavy air conditioners.

These were very slow, their computation

time were in milliseconds.

They were very expensive and consume

great amount of electricity.

They were very sensitive and often prone

to hardware failure.

Second Generation : 1956-1963

Transistor technology based computing devices. Size was very small as compared to first generation

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computers and was portable.

More reliable than first generation computers.
They were also heat generating and required air

conditioning but amount of heat was quit less as compared to first generation computers.
Requirement of electricity was less than first

generation computers.
Less expensive and required very little space. Computation time was in microseconds.

Third Generation - 1963-1971

They were integrated circuit (IC) technology based

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computing devices.
Size was very small as compared to all previous generation

computers.
They were portable and more reliable. They were less heat generating but required air conditioning

sometimes.
Requirement of electricity was less. Less expensive and required very little space. Computation time was reduced to nanoseconds.

Fourth Generation : 1971 to Present They are microprocessor based computing devices.
Size is very small. They were portable and more reliable. They generates negligible amount of heat and

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hardly requires air conditioning.

Requirement of electricity is very less.
These are cheapest and required very little space.

Computation time was reduces to nanoseconds.

Graphical user interface based multiuser and multitasking

operating system were made available for various computers.

Fifth Generation : (1990 and beyond) Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence, are still in development. to make artificial intelligence a reality.

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The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices

that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. It includes
Games playing: programming computers to play games such as

chess and checkers.

Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in

real-life situations.
Natural Language: programming computers to understand

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Computer Assisted Control & Automation

Control Systems
system.

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A control system is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behavior of other devices or

Types of Control System:

Manual Control System Automated Control System

Manual Control Systems

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Manual Control System is the system where human intervention is mandatory to perform a task or to control the logic. For example, to close and open a lock on a gate, perhaps including logic so that it cannot be opened or

closed unless the key is in place.

Automatic Control Systems

An automatic sequential control system may trigger a

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series of mechanical operations in the correct sequence to perform a task. For example various electric and

pneumatic transducers may fold and glue a cardboard

box, fill it with product and then seal it in an automatic packaging machine.

Automation

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Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to

reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and services.
Automation is a step beyond mechanization, whereas mechanization

provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in

daily experience.

Automation
Applications of Automations
Automated video surveillance Automated highway systems Automated manufacturing Home automation

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Industrial automation

Advantages of Automations
The main advantages of automation are:

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Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous work.

Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous

environments (i.e. fire, space, volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc.)

Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight, speed, endurance, etc. Economy improvement: Automation may improve in economy of enterprises, society or most of humanity.

Disadvantages of Automations
The main disadvantages of automation are: Unemployment rate increases due to machines replacing humans and putting those humans out

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of their

jobs.

Technical Limitation: Sometimes technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks. Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have limited level of intelligence, hence it is most likely to commit error.

Disadvantages of Automations
The main disadvantages of automation are: Unpredictable development costs: The research and development cost of automating a process may

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exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.

High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant requires a huge initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product.

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Computer Controlled Biometric/RFID based Access Control

Access Control
of any object can be controlled by certain means. A lock on a car door is essentially a form of access

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It refers to the technology through which the access/use

control. A PIN on an ATM system at a bank is another

means of access control. Access Control should be so strong that it could not be accessed unauthorized.

What goes into system security?

Authentication (password/crypto/etc.) Who are you? Authorization (Acess control) What are you allowed to do. Focus is policy Enforcement Mechanism How its policy implemented/enforced

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Night Club Example

Authentication ID Check Access Control Over 18 - allowed in Over 21 - allowed to drink On VIP List - allowed to access VIP area Enforcement Mechanism Walls, Doors, Locks, Bouncers

Night Club Example: More Interesting Phenomena

Tickets Name or anonymous?

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Date
What if you want to leave and come back Hand stamp or bracelet

Features of Access Control

There are three factors of authenticating information: Something the user has, such as smart card

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Something the user knows, e.g. a password or PIN Something the user is, such as verified by biometric measurement (fingerprints, retinal scan, iris

recognition, voice recognition, hand geometry, etc.)

Types of Access Control

Biometrics Access Control RFID Access Control

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Biometrics Access Control

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It consist of methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or more intrinsic physical or behavioral traits.

In computer science, in particular, biometrics is used as a

form of identity access management and access control. It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance.

Biometrics Access Control Modes Physiological Mode

Behavioral Mode

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Biometrics Access Control Modes Physiological Mode

Physiological are related to the shape of the body. Example includes

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Fingerprint
Face recognition DNA Palm print Hand geometry iris recognition Retina, etc.

Biometrics Access Control Modes Behavioral Mode

Behavioral are related to the behavior of a person. Example includes

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Voice
Signature Dynamics, etc.

Biometrics Techniques

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Finger Print Technology Fingerprint identification is the oldest of all the biometric techniques. It is the combination of hardware and software technologies. The hardware scans the live fingerprints and software matches it with the stored database. The live fingerprint readers are based on optical, thermal, silicon or ultrasonic principles. All the optical fingerprint readers comprise of the source of light, the light sensor and a special reflection surface that changes the reflection according to the pressure. Some of the readers are fitted out with the processing and memory chips as well.

Biometrics Techniques

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Iris Recognition The iris is the colored ring of textured tissue that surrounds the pupil of the eye. Even twins have different iris patterns and everyones left and right iris is different, too. Research shows that the matching accuracy of iris identification is greater than of the DNA testing. Each iris is a unique structure featuring a complex pattern. This can be a combination of specific characteristics known as corona, crypts, filaments, freckles, pits, furrows, striations and rings.

Biometrics Techniques

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Retina Scan Retina scan is based on the blood vessel pattern in the retina of the eye. Retina scan technology is older than the iris scan technology that also uses a part of the eye. The first retinal scanning systems were launched by EyeDentify in 1985. Retina is not directly visible and so a coherent infrared light source is necessary to illuminate the retina. The infrared energy is absorbed faster by blood vessels in the retina than by the surrounding tissue. The image of the retina blood vessel pattern is then analyzed for characteristic points within the pattern.

Biometrics Techniques

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Hand Geometry Hand geometry is based on the fact that nearly every persons hand is shaped differently and that the shape of a persons hand does not change after certain age. Hand geometry systems produce estimates of certain measurements of the hand such as the length and the width of fingers. Various methods are used to measure the hand. These methods are most commonly based either on mechanical or optical principle.

Biometrics Techniques

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Signature Dynamics The signature dynamics recognition is based on the dynamics of making the signature, rather than a direct comparison of the signature itself afterwards. The dynamics is measured as a means of the pressure, direction, acceleration and the length of the strokes, number of strokes and their duration. This technique treats the signature as a number of separate events, with each event consisting of the period between the pen striking the writing surface and lifting off again. This approach is much more flexible. If the majority of the signature is accurate and only one event is missing or added then this event can be easily ignored.

Biometrics Techniques

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Facial Recognition Facial recognition is the most natural means of biometric identification. Any camera (with a sufficient resolution) can be used to obtain the image of the face. Any scanned picture can be used as well. The better the image source (i.e. camera or scanner) the more accurate results we get. The facial recognition systems usually use only the gray-scale information. Most of facial recognition systems require the user to stand a specific distance away from the camera and look straight at the camera. This ensures that the captured image of the face is within a specific size tolerance and keeps the features (e.g., the eyes) in as similar position each time as possible.

RFID Access Control

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It is a technology that uses radio waves to transfer data from an electronic tag, called RFID tag or label, attached to an object, through a reader for the purpose of

identifying and tracking the object.

Some RFID tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. The application of bulk reading enables an almostparallel reading of tags.

Advantages of RFID
costs and eliminates human errors from data collection

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Tag detection not requiring human intervention reduces employment As no line-of-sight is required, tag placement is less constrained RFID tags have a longer read range than, e. g., barcodes Tags can have read/write memory capability, while barcodes do not Tags are less sensitive to adverse conditions (dust, chemicals, physical damage etc.)

Many tags can be read simultaneously

Automatic reading at several places reduces time lags and inaccuracies in an inventory

Limitations of RFID
High Cost Data Collision Faulty manufacturing of Tags

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Possible virus attack