Altruism

Are we inherently selfish? Can we learn to act otherwise?

Definition
Altruism
A motive to increase anothers welfare without conscious regard for ones self-interests.

Altruism has been the topic of philosophical debates for centuries.

Some argue that true altruism is not a possibility. Addition of conscious regard to above definition weakens this counterargument.

Altruistic Empathy?
Empathy: feeling anothers feelings Batson argues that the arousal of empathy increases helping behavior and gets us closer to pure altruism.
He argues that we focus more on the distress of the other person than on our own distress.

Theories on why we Help

Social Exchange Theory
Relationships are designed to minimize costs and maximize rewards. Sometimes referred to as Social Economics or Social Calculus. Internal rewards include reduction of distress and an increase of self-worth. External rewards include social approval.

Theory Two: Social Norms

Norm of reciprocity
We should help, not harm those, who have helped us. And we expect the same behavior from others. More likely in sustained relationships than in one time encounters (makes it harder to study in laboratory). When people have received help but cant reciprocate there is frequently a drop in self-esteem. This finding is common for recipients of affirmative action.

More Norms
Social Responsibility Norm
Belief that we should help those in need. We should help those who are dependent on us, with no expectation of reciprocity. This belief is stronger in collectivist cultures. Tends to be tied to attributions for need. We help those who dont seem to have caused their situation.

Theory Three: Sociobiology

Genes drives us to maximize their likelihood of being passed on. Thus, we help our kin and those who are like us more quickly than others. Does not invalidate norm of reciprocity.
Reciprocal systems increase likelihood of survival. Are more likely to occur in small systems.

Where does unreciprocated altruism fit in?

Group selection: altruistic groups are more successful than non-altruistic.

Religious and ethical rules: may have been created to slow down our biological bias toward self-interest.

Theory Social Exchange

Level of Explanation

Mutual "Altruism" external rewards for helping reciprocity norm

Intrinsic Altruism distress=inner rewards for helping social responsibility norm

psychological

Social Norms

sociological

Evolutionary

biological

reciprocity

kin selection

Latane and Darley

Leading researchers who were spurred to action by the Kitty Genovese murder. Keys to helping behavior are:
Noticing the event Interpreting it as an emergency Assuming responsibility

Factors that Influence Helping

Number of bystanders
How does a large crowd influence noticing an emergency, interpreting something as an emergency, and assuming responsibility? Leads to the bystander effect.

Factors exist that reduce bystander effect.

Clear emergencies vs. ambiguous. Cohesive groups vs. strangers.

Additional Factors
Presence of prosocial models.
Salvation Army contributions increase if person has just seen someone else give.

Time pressure
You are less likely to receive aid from someone in a hurry They are less likely to notice an emergency and less likely to interpret a situation correctly.

Emotions
Guilt
Increases helping behavior. In one study, those who had not lied volunteered to help an experimenter for an average of 2 minutes, those who had lied helped for approximately 63 minutes! More likely to help if our guilt is public knowledge.

Emotions
Negative mood
For adults, not children, a bad mood increases the likelihood of helping behavior. It appears that adults have learned that helping is a self-gratifying behavior. Exceptions to this tendency include feelings of anger and grief.

Positive mood
Happy people are helpful people. Parking ticket study: fear turning to relief increases helping behavior significantly.

Personality Traits
No one trait predicts altruism However,
There are individual differences in helpfulness over time. Network of traits (emotionality, empathy, self-efficacy) are linked to helping. High self-monitors help if they believe it will be socially rewarded (interaction of personality and situation). Men more likely to help in dangerous situations; women in safer situations.

Religious Faith
Religious commitment is linked to a greater likelihood of long-term, planned helping behavior. Weekly attendees of church/synagogue (24% of population) give 48% of all charitable contributions.

How do we teach altruism?

Teach moral inclusion
If we are more likely to help those who are like us, expand that group.

Model altruism
Even television can be helpful here!

Attributing behavior to altruistic motives

Avoid overjustification effect. That is, dont coerce people into altruism, dont reward them too much, etc.