The experimentation of cathode rays is largely accredited to J. J.

Thomson ,was able to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern CRT. A common CRT used in computer monitors and television sets. Cathode ray tubes (CRT's) is a special type of electronic vacuum tube, in which a device called an electron gun projects a beam of electrons onto the fluorescent screen, causing the affected part of the screen to glow. Electrically charged metal plates inside the CRT, or electromagnets outside the CRT, move the beam across the screen. The beam thus creates a picture on the screen with spots of light. CRT's are used in electronic equipment to display pictures or other information. The picture tube of a television set is a CRT.

Functions of a Cathode Ray Tube

Parts of a CRT 1. Electron Gun: The role of this section is to produce electrons at a high, fixed, velocity. This is done through a process known as thermionic emission. An anode with a high voltage applied to it accelerates the electrons towards the screen due to electrostatic attraction. On the way, the electrons pass through a series of control grids which control the brightness of the image produced. The more negative the grid, the darker the image and vice versa.
2. Deflection system: The role of the deflection system is to control the image produced by controlling the position that the electrons hit the screen. It consists of two perpendicular sets of electric/magnetic fields. This allows control over both horizontal and vertical axes. By controlling the voltage applied to the fields, it is possible to vary the deflection through electrostatic force/motor effect. 3. Fluorescent screen: The role of this part is to display where the electrons are hitting the CRT. It is a screen coated with a material that emits light when struck by electrons. Zinc sulfide or phosphorus are two commonly used materials.

A CRT/monochromatic cannot be used to display only one color except black. Each pixel in monochromatic CRT contain a phosphor dot of one color.

Whereas, In color CRT the phosphor dot in each pixel contains three colors red, green, blue(RGB).

 An electron beam produced at the cathode is accelerated and focused to strike on the screen. The screen is covered with a phosphor which can emit light of specific colors when excited. The three type of phosphors used for the dots emits red , green or blue light respectively when struck by an electron beam. Red , green and blue are primary colors and by the combination of this three colors in a correct ratio, all the others colors can be produced. To generate an image on the screen the electron beam scans across the phosphor dots according to the information taken from the video signal. The phosphor dots at each position on the screen light up with the correct and intensity to create the desired image.

1. CATHODE: A filament heats up the cathode to facilitate the emission of electrons. As the cathode has a negative voltage is applied to it, electron beam is produced at cathode and travel towards the screen. 2. CONTROL GRID: the video signal voltage is applied to the control gird. As the voltage between the cathode and the control grid varies, the intensity of the electron beam varies accordingly, controlling the brightness of the image on the screen. 3. ACCELERATING ELECTRODE: This positive electrode accelerates the electrons in the electrons in the electron beam. The baffles inside the accelerating electrode cylinder restrict the beam to a narrow ray. 4. FOCUSING ANODE: A high voltage is applied to the focusing anode to force the electron beam into paths that focus on the phosphor screen. The focusing anode is sometimes referred to as an electrostatic lens as it uses electrostatic means to focus the electron beam. 5. ELECTRON BEAM: Three beams of electrons are needed to strike the red, green or blue phosphor respectively. The three beams can either be produced by three electron guns or by one electron gun fitted with a colour deflection system that separates one electron beam into three. In this case each electron gun has been given separate color of phosphor that the beam has to strike. #Electron beam has no colour.

6. ANODE WALL COATING : This metallic coating is connected to a high voltage of several thousand volts. Such high voltage further accelerates the electrons in the electron beam. The anode wall coating is also designed for collecting electrons after they hit the phosphor screen. 7. SHADOW MASK: The shadow is a thin plate with holes in it to let the electron beam to pass through. The purpose of the shadow mask is to separate the three electron beams intended to hit the red, green or blue phosphor dots so that they do not hit the wrong colour.

8. PHOSPHOR SCREEN: The phosphor screen contains many phosphor dots grouped in threes. The three dots within each group are mad of different types of phosphor which, when struck by the electron beam, emit red, blue and green light respectively. The intensity of the light emitted depends on the intensity of the electron beam striking the phosphor. The ratio of red, green and blue emitted by each group can thus be controlled to produce

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display electronic visual display, or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are perpendicular to each other. With actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.

LCD electrodes

The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of thin polymer layer that is unidirectionally rubbed using a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of the transparent conductor indium tin oxide. The liquid-crystal display is intrinsically a passive device.
LCD drivers The managing and control of the data to be displayed is performed by one or more circuits commonly denoted as LCD drivers. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes.

1. In a colour LCD monitor there are many minute display units called pixels used to display an image. The structure of a pixel of an LCD monitor is shown in the diagram. 2. A pixel is divided into three sub pixels, covered with red, green and blue colour filters respectively. 3. Each sub pixel consists of a liquid crystal layer sandwiched between two polarizer's. 4. The two polarizer's have axes oriented perpendicular to each other
5. The pixel is illuminated by a florescent lamp from behind the first polarizer. If the crystal was absent, light passing though the first polarizer would be polarized in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the second polarizer. In this case no light could pass through the second polarizer. 6. The presence of the liquid crystal layer, however, rotates the polarization direction of the light at a certain angle. Thus light coming out of the liquid crystal is polarized in a direction not exactly perpendicular to the axis of the second polarizer.As a result , part of the light can pass through the second polarizer and reach our eyes.

7. The intensity of light that passes through the second polarizer depends on the amount of polarization rotation produced by the liquid crystal layer. This is controlled by the voltage applied to the liquid crystal through a device called a thin film transistor. 8. When each storage capacitor is charged to its maximum amount by the thin film transistor, a high enough voltages is applied to the liquid crystal layer. 9. This makes all the molecules in the liquid crystal align in such a way that they produce no polarization rotation of the light passing through them. As a result, the lights polarization direction is not changed and the light is blocked by the second polarizer. 10. As no light comes out of the pixel, the pixel is said to be off. 11. When the storage capacitor is partially charged, a smaller crystal layer causing the molecules of the liquid crystal to rotate by a certain degree. This in turn rotates the lights polarization direction. As a result, part of the light can pass through the second polarizer. 12. The intensity of the light that passes through second polarizer is controlled by the amount of charge in the storage capacitor. When the storage capacitor is uncharged, no voltage is applied to the liquid crystal. 13. As the molecular arrangement of the liquid crystal layer twisted by 90 degrees, the lights polarization direction is rotated by 90 degrees.

1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters. 2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is turned ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth. 3. Twisted pneumatics liquid crystal. 4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter. 5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light. 6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE: A light-emitting diode(led) is a semiconductor light source LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. A led is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

OPERATION OF LED: The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side to the n-side but not in the reverse direction.

Charge carriers electrons and holes flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials.
Colour Red Red-orange Wavelength range(nm) 620 < < 645 610 < < 620 TypicalEfficiency(lm/W) 72 98

Green
Cyan Blue

520 < < 550

490 < < 520 460 < < 490

93
75 37

Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development.

Ultraviolet and blue LEDs : The first blue LEDs using gallium nitride. These devices had too little light output to be of practical use.

White light

There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes (WLEDs), LEDs that generate high-intensity white light.

One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors red , green, and blue and then mix all the colors to form white light.
The second is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works.

RGB LED

White light can be formed by mixing differently colored lights; the most common method is to use red, green, and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-color white LEDs . Because these need electronic circuits to control the blending and diffusion of different colors, and because the individual color LEDs typically have slightly different emission patterns even if they are made as a single unit, these are seldom used to produce white lighting.

Nevertheless, this method is particularly interesting in many uses because of the flexibility of mixing different colors and, in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.

Miniature
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat and triangular or square with a flat top There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs: Low-current: Typically rated for 2 ma at around 2 V (approximately 4 mw consumption). Standard: 20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at around 1. 1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow, 2. 3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue, 3. 2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white. Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 45 V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight. 5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.

Mid-range:
Medium-power LEDs are often through-holemounted and mostly utilized when an output of just a few lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. These LEDs are most commonly used in light panels, emergency lighting, and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger amount of metal in the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The higher current allows for the higher light output required for tail-lights and emergency lighting.

High-power
High-power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens. LED power densities up to 300W/cm2 have been achieved Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, OsramOpto. Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will fail in seconds. One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.

APPLICATION-SPECIFIC VARIATIONS Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multi-vibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot.

Bi-color LEDs are two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types one type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads anti-parallel to each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color.

Tri-color LEDs are three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead and an additional lead for each color.

RGB LEDs are Tri-color LEDs with red, green and blue emitters, in general using a four-wire connection with one common lead. These LEDs can have either common positive or common negative leads. Others however, have only two leads and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.

Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Sevensegment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.

CRT http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube. http://www.hk-phy.org/energy/commercial/office_phy/flash/crt_e.html. http://ecomputernotes.com/computer-graphics/graphics-device/what-iscolor-crt-display-explain-beam-penetration-and-shadow-mask-method LCD https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display http://www.hk-phy.org/energy/commercial/office_phy/flash/lcd_e.html LED https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode http://www.google.co.in/search?q=LED&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X &ei=Za6dUbuUNIqKrgeo7oGwAg&ved=0CDoQsAQ&biw=1280&bih=933

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