MECHANISM AND CAUSES

PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
ANNA UNIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is defined as the destruction
(or) deterioration of materials due to
chemical (or) electrochemical reaction
with the environment, and means other
than directly mechanical.
 The corrosion of steel reinforcement is
the depassivation of steel with the
reduction in concrete alkalinity through
carbonation.
 Most of the materials undergo corrosion
on exposure to natural environments
(like atmosphere, water and soil) and to
other artificial environments (like gases,
liquids, moisture).
 Corrosion is an electro-chemical process
involving an anode, a cathode and an
electrolyte. In steel, when favourable
condition for corrosion occurs, the
ferrous ions go into solution from anodic
areas.
 Electrons are then released from the
anode and move through the cathode
where they combine with water and
oxygen to form hydroxyl ions.
 These react with the ferrous ions from
anode to produce hydrated ferrous
oxide, which further gets oxidised into
ferric oxide, which is known as the ‘red
rust’.
Corrosion Mechanism
COLLECTION OF WASTE & SALT WATER ON SUNSHADE
COLUMN HEAD- PREFAB-STAIRS-CORRODED
Effect of corrosion
 Deterioration of concrete due to
corrosion results because the product of
ferric oxide, brown in colour occupies a
greater volume (more than 2 to 10 times)
than steel and exerts substantial
bursting stresses on the surrounding
concrete.
 The outward manifestations of the
rusting include staining, cracking and
spalling of concrete.
 The progress of corrosion process will
generally be in geometric progression
with respect to time. Consequently, the
c/s of the steel is reduced.
 With time, structural distress may occur either
by loss of bond between the steel and
concrete (or) due to cracking and spalling of
concrete, (or) as a result of the reduced steel
c/s area.
 This latter effect can be of special concern in
structures containing high strength pre-
stressing steel in which a small amount of
metal loss could possibly induce tendon
failure.
 However, the process leading to the
ultimate failure is slow and normally
gives years of warning to the
maintenance engineering squad.
Problems due to corrosion

 Hazard to human life and economic

losses occur due to premature
deterioration and destruction of
buildings, bridges, culverts, pipes,
structures including marine and offshore
structures, towers, water supply and
sanitary fittings, carpentry and electrical
fittings, implants for human body, etc.
Corrosion of steel reinforcement is the
cause of deterioration of reinforced
concrete which causes spalling of
concrete due to increase in volume of
oxidized compounds when compared
with the volume of base metal
dissolved.
 This increase in volume causes tensile
forces leading to cracks in concrete
around steel reinforcement and further
accentuates the effect of corrosive
environments.
 Therefore, a more complete picture of
the behaviour of corroding steel in
reinforced concrete members would be
desirable.
Protection from corrosion
 Protectionof the reinforcement from
corrosion is provided by the alkalinity of
the concrete, which leads to passivation
of steel. Formation protective skin
around steel is shown in Figure
Typical Case of Potential
Difference in the Ties of Column
Typical Case of Potential
Difference in Concrete
 The reserve of calcium hydroxide is very
high, so there is no need to expect steel
corrosion even when water penetrates to
the reinforcement in the concrete.
 Because of this, even the occurrence of
small cracks (upto 0.1 mm in width) or
blemishes in concrete need not
necessarily lead to damage.
 However, environmental influences and
CO2 in particular, will reduce the
concrete’s pH value from 12.6 to 8.0,
and thus remove the passivating effect,
in conjunction with existing humidity, the
result is corrosion of reinforcement.
Electrochemical potential

The presence of an electrical potential

is the pre-requisite for the occurance
of corrosion . It may be created by:
Differential aeration – difference in
concentration of oxygen on the steel
surface.
Differential ion concentration – metal
ions, dissolved salts and pH of
concrete in the vicinity of steel.
Differential surface properties – small
scale (or) breaks in coatings,
impurities in concrete etc.
 The reinforcement in concrete has a
passivating layer of gamma ferric oxide
(Fe2O3). Any breaks that occur in the
protective film are quickly repaired in presence
of sufficiently high hydroxyl ion concentration
forming first ferrous hydroxide then cubic ferric
oxide (Fe3O4). and gamma oxide (Fe2O3).
Corrosion Mechanism
There are two mechanisms of corrosion
 By direction oxidation;
 By electrochemical reaction.

The latter one is the most widely occurring mechanism.

Fe → Fe+ + +2e- (Anodic reaction)
4e + O2 + 2H2O → 4 (OH) (cathodic reaction)
Fe ++ + 2 (OH) 2 → Fe (OH) 2 (Ferrous Hydroxide)
2Fe++ + 6 (OH) → 2Fe (OH)3 (Ferric Hydroxide)
2Fe (OH) → Fe2O + 3H2O
(or)
At the Anode :- Fe + 2(OH) → Fe (OH) 2 + 2e
At the Cathode :-O2 + 2H2O + 4e → 4 (OH)
 It
is observed that for corrosion to occur
and to continue, we require oxygen and
water.
 There is no corrosion below 30%
relative humidity. At 70 to 80% relative
humidity corrosion rate is highest.
 Chloride ion present in the cement paste
surrounding the reinforcement from HCl
which ultimately destroys passive
protective film on the steal similarly
formulation of CaCO3 after the reaction
of Ca(OH)2 also destroys the passive
environment by bringing down the pH
from 12.5 to 9.0 and below.
 Due to the phenomenon, the steel
activated locally to form the anode and
the remaining passive surface as
cathode and localized corrosion in the
form pitting ensues. Schematic
representation of corrosion due to
chloride ion is shown as
Fe++ + Cl- + H2O → Fe (OH)2 + HCl
HCl → Cl- + H+
Chloride Induced Macro Cell Corrosion of Steel in Concrete
STAGES OF CORROSION
 LIME LEACHING
 RUST STAINING
 BULGING OF COVER (COLLECTION OF RUST PRODUCTS)
 MICRO CRACKS
 MACRO CRACKS
 SPALLING OF COVER CONCRETE
 Thedegree of protection against corrosion is
provided by the pore fluid Ca(OH)2. The pH of
Ca (OH)2 solution at 25°C is 12.53 at
maximum solubility of Ca(OH)2.
 ThepH still remains 11.27 when the
concentration of Ca (OH)2 is only 5.5% of the
maximum. Following Figure shows the
quantity of corrosion products Vs time.
Quality of corrosion products Vs
Time
Types of corrosion

 Pitting corrosion
 Crevice corrosion
 Bimetallic corrosion
 Stress corrosion
 Fretting corrosion
 Bacterial corrosion
 Hydrogen embrittlement
Pitting corrosion
 As shown in Figure the anodic
areas form a corrosion pit. This
can occur with mild steel immersed
in water or soil.
 This common type of corrosion is
essentially due to the presence of
moisture aided by improper detailing
or constant exposure to alternate
wetting and drying.
 This form of corrosion could easily
be tackled by encouraging rapid
drainage by proper detailing and
allowing free flow of air, which would
dry out the surface
Crevice
 The corrosion
principle of
crevice corrosion is
shown in Figure the
oxygen content of
water trapped in a
crevice is less than
that of water which is
exposed to air.
 Because of this the
crevice becomes
anodic with respect to
surrounding metal and
hence the corrosion
starts inside the
crevice.
Bimetallic corrosion
 When two dissimilar metals (for e.g. Iron and
Aluminium) are joined together in an
electrolyte, an electrical current passes
between them and the corrosion occurs.
 This is because, metals in general could be
arranged, depending on their electric potential,
into a table called the ‘galvanic series’. The
farther the metals in the galvanic series, the
greater the potential differences between
them causing the anodic metal to corrode.
A common example is the use of steel
screws in stainless steelmembers and
also using steel bolts in aluminium
members. Obviously such a contact
between dissimilar metals should be
avoided in detailing
Stress corrosion
This occurs under the
simultaneous influence of a static
tensile stress and a specific
corrosive environment.
 Stress makes some spots in a
body more anodic (especially the
stress concentration zones)
compared with the rest as shown in
Figure
The crack tip in the anodic part and it
corrodes to make the crack wider.
This corrosion is not common with
ferrous metals though some stainless
steels are susceptible to this.
Fretting corrosion
 If two oxide coated films or
rusted surfaces are rubbed
together, the oxide film can
be mechanically removed
from high spots between the
contacting surfaces as shown
in Figure.
 These exposed points become
active anodes compared with
the rest of the surfaces and
initiate corrosion.
 This type corrosion is
common in mechanical
components.
Bacterial corrosion

 Thiscan occur in soils and water as a

result of microbiological activity.

 Bacterialcorrosion is most common in

pipelines, buried structures and offshore
structures.
Hydrogen embrittlement

 This occurs mostly in fasteners and

bolts. The atomic hydrogen may get
absorbed into the surface of the
fasteners.
 When tension is applied to these
fasteners, hydrogen will tend to migrate
to points of stress concentration.
 The pressure created by the hydrogen
creates and/or extends a crack. The
crack grows in subsequent stress
cycles.
 Although hydrogen embrittlement is
usually included in the discussion
about corrosion, actually it is not really a
corrosion phenomenon.
FACTORS INFLUENCING
CORROSION
The factors which generally influence corrosion of
reinforcement in concrete structures are:
 pH value
 Moisture
 Oxygen
 Carbonation of concrete
 Chlorides and sulphates
 Ambient temperature and relative humidity
 Severity of exposure
 Quality of construction materials
 Cover to reinforcement
 Permeability of concrete
 Initial curing conditions
 Formation of cracks
 High carbon content in reinforcement
 High stress levels
 Inadequate grouting of pre-stressed tendons
 Reinforcement corroded prior to embedment
 Alkali-aggregate reaction
 Potential difference associated with liquid
 Stray currents
 Periodical maintenance
pH value

 The pH value of moist concrete is

normally about 12.0, which is sufficient
to passivate the reinforcement against
corrosion. When it reduces below 8.0,
carbonation of concrete takes place, in
turn corrosion initiates. Following figure
shows the schematic representation of
pH value.
Schematic Representation of pH Value
Carbonation of concrete

 Carbonation is a process by which CO2

converts the unleached lime to CaCO3 and
water, thereby will reduce the pH further and
as it reaches about 9.0 the passivation of the
reinforcement is lost and corrosion will start
with the availability of O2 and H2O.
 The penetration depth of this pH is generally
called “carbonation depth”. This process
shown in Figure.
Carbonation Process
Carbonation time Vs w/c
Carbonation time Vs Time
The rate of carbonation depends on:
 Permeability of concrete
 CO2 concentration in the air
 Moisture in the gel and capillary pores
 Relative humidity of atmosphere
 As carbonation reaches the reinforcement, the
passivating influence of the concrete is lost and in
presence of moisture and oxygen the reinforcement
starts cooroding.
 Schematic process is
Ca (OH)2 + CO2 + H2O − − − → CaCO3 + 2H2O
Carbonation is controlled by
 Composition of cement
 Amount of cement per m3
 Concrete mix-design including the grading of
aggregate
 Consolidation / compaction of concrete
 Curing of concrete
 Environmental condition in which concrete is
to live
Reaction with chloride

 Presence of Cacl2 even in small percentage

can lead to rapid corrosion of reinforcement
as it reduces the electrical resistivity of
concrete, and helps to promote galvanic cell
action.
 Presence of chlorides increases shrinkage
cracks in concrete further accentuating
corrosion of reinforcement in aggressive
environment.
 The ingress of chloride ions in excess of
the threshold concentration value,
reduces the alkalinity of the concrete
and breaks down the protective film to
set off the process of corrosion.
 Itincreases the corrosion rate through
their conductivity to the ionic activity.
 Chloride salt can enter concrete in two
ways:
 chloride may be present in the concrete
mix itself
 chloride can penetrate into the hardened
concrete wherever it is permeable and
reaches the reinforcement at isolated
points.
 Chloride induced corrosion in steel
reinforcement at isolated points.
Moisture

The presence of moisture in an R.C. member is

due to two reasons.
 Water that is used for making the concrete mix
remains well distributed and enclosed in the
concrete mass.
 Water that finds its way into the hardened
concrete from outside due to the subsequent
absorption of water which may circulate freely
in inside the mass.
Oxygen

 The differential aeration cell, set up

by differential concentration of oxygen,
sets off the process of corrosion. Thus
is r.c. members, region with least oxygen
concentration becomes anodic while
those with larger oxygen concentration
becomes cathodic.
Ambient temperature and relative
humidity

 Rate of corrosion is directly proportional

to the ambient temperature
 Rate of carbonation increases with
increase in temperature
 The pH value limit, below which the
corrosion is induced, decreases with
increase in ambient temperature
Severity of exposure

 Rate of corrosion is proportional to

severity of the environment
 Due to severe exposure, concrete in the
cover region undergoes rapid
deterioration and in turn the
reinforcement looses its passivity and
starts corroding.
Quality of construction materials

Quality of construction materials

 Use of construction materials which are contaminated
with a significant level of chlorides/sulphates, cause
depassivation of reinforcement and sets off corrosion.
Quality of concrete
 It is one of the most common causes of early
deterioration.
 Good quality concrete will be dense and almost
impermeable
 The above property of concrete prevents easy access
of external deteriorating agents to the reinforcement.
Cover to the reinforcement

 Lack if adequate cover contributes very much to

corrosion in an aggressive environment.
 Well compact and continuous cover of good quality
concrete of even small thickness on the reinforcement
is sufficient to protect it from corrosion.
For sever exposure - min 40mm thick
For moderate exposure - min 30mm thick
For mild exposure - min 20mm thick
For normal exposure - min 10 mm thick
Initial curing conditions

 Process of corrosion depends on

Permeability of the cover concrete
Initial curing conditions
 If the curing is sufficient then due to
premature drying, the permeability of cover
concrete increases.
 High permeability of concrete to liquids and
gases makes the alkalies in the hardened
cement paste to combine more (or) less
completely with CO2 and SO2.
Formation of cracks

 The formation of cracks is dangerous for the

protection against corrosion in due course of time.
 Once concrete cracks, the external depassivating
agents will have access to penetrate deep into the
concrete and set off the process of corrosion.
 Cracks running transversely to the reinforcement
are less harmful than the longitudinal cracks along
the reinforcement.
 Thick concentrate cover increases the crack
distance and the width
DAMAGES DUE TO CORROSION

Formation of white patches

 CO2 reacts with Ca(OH) 2 in the cement paste to
form CaCO3. The free movement of water carries
the unstable CaCO3 towards the surface and forms
white patches.
 It indicates the occurrence of carbonation.
Brown patches along reinforcement
 When reinforcement starts corroding, a layer of
ferric oxide is formed. This brown product resulting
from corrosion may permeate along with moisture to
the concrete surface without cracking of the
concrete.
Occurrence of cracks

 The increase in volume exerts considerable

bursting pressure on the surrounding concrete
resulting in cracking.
 The hair line crack in the concrete surface
lying directly above the reinforcement and
running parallel to it is the positive visible
indication that reinforcement is corroding.
 These cracks indicate that the expanding rust
has grown enough to split the concrete.
Formation of multiple cracks

 As corrosion progresses, formation of multiple

layers of rust on the reinforcement which in
turn exert considerable pressure on the
surrounding concrete resulting in widening of
hair cracks.
 In addition, a number of new hair cracks are
also formed.
 The bond between concrete and the
reinforcement is considerably reduced. There
will be a hollow sound when the concrete is
tapped at the surface with a light hammer.
Spalling of cover concrete
 Due to loss in bond between steel and
concrete and formation of multiple layers of
scales, the cover concrete starts peeling off.
 At this stage, size of bars is reduced.
Snapping of bars
 The continued reduction in the size of bars,
results in snapping of the bars.
 This will occur in ties/stirrups first.
 At this stage, size of the main bars is reduced
Buckling of bars and bulging of
concrete

 The spalling of the cover concrete and

snapping of ties causes the main bars to
buckle. This results in bulging of
concrete in that region. This follows
collapse of the structure.
 When corrosion of reinforcement starts,
the deterioration is usually slow but
advances in a geometrical progression.
 Corrosion can also cause structural
failure due to reduced c/s and hence
reduced load carrying capacity. It is
possible to arrest the process of
corrosion at any stage by altering the
corrosive environment in the vicinity of
the reinforcement.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN NEW
CONSTRUCTIONS
Preventive measures for controlling corrosion of
steel embedded in cement concrete use sound
corrosion engineering principles directed towards:
Design factors
 Low w/c ratio
 High strength concrete
 Higher minimum cement content
 Higher concrete cover
 Proper detailing of reinforcement
 Moderate stress levels
Construction aspects
 Adequate compaction of concrete
 Effective curing

 Production of impervious concrete

 Effective grouting of presented tendons

The various surface preparation
methods are briefly explained below.
Manual preparation
 This is a very economical surface cleaning
method but only
 30% of the rust and scale may be removed.
This is usually carried out with a wire brush.
Mechanical preparation
 This is carried out with power driven tools and
up to 35% cleaning can be achieved. This
method is quite fast and effective.
Flame cleaning
 In this process an Oxy-gas flame causes
differential thermal expansion and removes
mill scale more effectively.
Acid pickling
 This involves the immersion of steel in a
bath of suitable acids to remove rust.
Usually this is done before hot dip
galvanising (explained in the next section).
Blast cleaning

 In this process, abrasive particles are

projected at high speed on to the steel
surface and cleaning is effected by
abrasive action.
 The common blast cleaning method is
the ‘sand blasting’. However in some
states of India, sand blasting is not
allowed due to some environmental
reasons.