Statistical Quality Control

Lecture Outline
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Types of data
Constructing control charts
Interpreting control charts
Process capability
Acceptance sampling
Quality Control Approaches
Statistical process control (SPC)
Monitors production process to prevent poor
quality
Acceptance sampling
Inspects random sample of product to
determine if a lot is acceptable
Statistical Process Control
Take periodic samples from process
Plot sample points on control chart
Determine if process is within limits
Prevent quality problems
Variation
Common Causes
Variation inherent in a process
Can be eliminated only through improvements
in the system
Special Causes
Variation due to identifiable factors
Can be modified through operator or
management action
Types Of Data
Attribute data
Product characteristic evaluated with a discrete
choice
Good/bad, yes/no
Variable data
Product characteristic that can be measured
Length, size, weight, height, time, velocity
Control Charts
Graph establishing process control limits
Charts for variables
Mean (X-bar), Range (R)
Charts for attributes
p and c
Process Control Chart
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number
Upper
control
limit
Process
average
Lower
control
limit
A Process Is In Control If
No sample points outside limits
Most points near process average
About equal # points above & below
centerline
Points appear randomly distributed
Development Of Control Chart
Based on in-control data
If non-random causes present discard data
Correct control chart limits
Control Charts For Variables
Mean chart (X-Bar Chart)
Uses average of a sample
Range chart (R-Chart)
Uses amount of dispersion in a sample
The Normal Distribution
=0 1o 2o 3o
95%
99.74%
-1o
-2o -3o
Mean Chart
UCL x z
LCL x z
n
x
x
x
= +
=
=
o
o
o
o
UCL x z
n
cm
LCL x z
n
cm
= + = +
|
\

|
.
|
=
= =
|
\

|
.
|
=
o
o
5 3
0 04
20
5 027
5 3
0 04
20
4 973
.
.
.
.
These formulas only work if we know
Example Data
Slip-ring diameter (cm)
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08

10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15
x Chart Calculations
( )( )
( )( )
x
n
cm
UCL x R
LCL x R
x
R
x x x
A
A
n
=
+ + +
= =
= + = + =
= = =
=
=
1 2
2
2
50 09
10
5 01
5 01 0 58 115 5 08
5 01 0 58 115 4 94

.
.
. . . .
. . . .
average of sample means
average range value
These formulas use the sample range
3o Control Chart Factors
Sample size x-chart R-chart
n A
2
D
3
D
4

2 1.88 0 3.27
3 1.02 0 2.57
4 0.73 0 2.28
5 0.58 0 2.11
6 0.48 0 2.00
7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86
Example x-Chart
4.92
4.94
4.96
4.98
5.00
5.02
5.04
5.06
5.08
5.10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
Sample number
S
a
m
p
l
e

a
v
e
r
a
g
e
Range (R-) Chart

UCL =
4
D
R
LCL =
3
D
R
R =
R

k
R = range of each sample
k =number of samples
R-Chart Calculations

R =
R

k
=
1.15
10
= 0.115
UCL =
4
D
R = 2.11(0.115) = 0.243
LCL =
3
D
R = 0(0.115) = 0
Example R-Chart
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
0
Sample number
R
a
n
g
e
Using X- and R-Charts Together
Each measures process differently
Process average and variability must be in
control
Control Charts For Attributes
p Charts
Calculate percent defectives in sample
c Charts
Count number of defects in item
p-Chart
UCL p z
p
LCL p z
p
p
p p
n
p
= +
=
=

=
o
o
o
( ) 1
average % defective in sample
n = sample size
p-Chart Example
20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

Sample # # Defects Proportion Defective
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
3 4 .04

20 18 .18
200
p-Chart Calculations

p =
total defectives
total sample observations
=
200
20(100)
= 0.10

UCL = p + z
p (1 p )
n
= 0.10 + 3
0.10(1 0.10)
100
= 0.190
LCL = p z
p (1 p )
n
= 0.10 3
0.10(1 0.10)
100
= 0.010
Example p-Chart
. .
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0

2

4

6

8

1
0

1
2

1
4

1
6

1
8

2
0

P
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
n

d
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

Sample number
c-Chart

Process average = c =
Total # defects
# samples
Sample standard deviation =
c
o
= c
UCL = c +z
c
o
LCL = c - z
c
o
c-Chart Example

Count # of defects in 15 rolls of denim fabric

Sample # # Defects
1 12
2 8
3 16

15 15
190
c-Chart Calculations

c =
190
15
=12.67
UCL = c +z
c
o
= 12.67 + 3 12.67 = 23.35
LCL = c - z
c
o
= 12.67 3 12.67 = 1.99
Example c-Chart
.
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
0

2

4

6

8

1
0

1
2

1
4

Sample number
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
e
f
e
c
t
s

LCL
UCL
Sample observations
consistently below the
center line
UCL
LCL
Sample observations
consistently above the
center line
Control Chart Patterns
Control Chart Patterns
LCL
UCL
Sample observations
consistently increasing
LCL
UCL
Sample observations
consistently decreasing
Control Chart Patterns
LCL
UCL
Sample observations
consistently below the
center line
UCL
LCL
Sample observations
consistently above the
center line
Zones For Pattern Tests
UCL
LCL
Zone C
Zone C
Zone B
Zone B
Zone A
Zone A

3 sigma = x +
2
A
R

2 sigma = x +
2
3
2
A
R
( )

1sigma = x +
1
3
2
A
R
( )
x

1sigma = x
1
3
2
A
R
( )

2 sigma = x
2
3
2
A
R
( )

3 sigma = x
2
A
R
5.08
5.05
5.03
5.01
4.98
4.965
4.94
Values for example 4.4
Average
Control Chart Patterns
8 consecutive points on one side of the
center line.
8 consecutive points up or down across
zones.
14 points alternating up or down.
2 out of 3 consecutive points in zone A but
still inside the control limits.
4 out of 5 consecutive points in zone A or B.
Performing A Pattern Test
Sample x Above/below Up/down Zone
1 4.98 B -- B
2 5.00 B U C
3 4.95 B D A
4 4.96 B D A
5 4.99 B U C
6 5.01 -- U C
7 5.02 A U C
8 5.05 A U B
9 5.08 A U A
10 5.03 A D B
Results Of Pattern Test
2 of 3 consecutive points in zone A
Samples 3 and 4
Process should be checked
Sample Size Determination
Attribute control charts
50 to 100 parts in a sample
Variable control charts
2 to 10 parts in a sample
Process Capability
Range of natural variability in process
Measured with control charts.
Process cannot meet specifications if
natural variability exceeds tolerances
3-sigma quality
specifications equal the process control limits.
6-sigma quality
specifications twice as large as control limits
Process Capability
Process can meet specifications
P
R
O
C
E
S
S

Natural
control
limits
D
e
s
i
g
n

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

Process capability exceeds specifications
P
R
O
C
E
S
S

Natural
control
limits
D
e
s
i
g
n

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

Process cannot meet specifications
P
R
O
C
E
S
S

Natural
control
limits
Design
specifications
Process Capability and Variation
If the inherent variation of a process
is less than the specification limits,
the process is capable
The process capability index is
C
USL LSL
USL
LSL
p
=

=
=
6o
o
where upper specification limit
lower specificaton limit
= standard deviation of the process
Process Capability
Lower
specification limit
Upper
specification limit
Out of spec
Cp = 1
Cp > 1
nominal (average)
Acceptance Sampling
Accept/reject entire lot based on sample
results
Not consistent with TQM of Zero Defects
Measures quality in percent defective
Sampling Plan
Guidelines for accepting lot
Single sampling plan
N = lot size
n = sample size (random)
c = acceptance number
d = number of defective items in sample
If d <= c, accept lot; else reject
Producers & Consumers Risk
TYPE I ERROR = P(reject good lot)
o or producers risk
5% is common
TYPE II ERROR = P(accept bad lot)
| or consumers risk
10% is typical value
Quality Definitions
Acceptance quality level (AQL)
Acceptable fraction defective in a lot
Lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD)
Maximum fraction defective accepted in a lot

Operating Characteristic (OC)
Curve
Shows probability of lot acceptance
Based on
sampling plan
quality level of lot
Indicates discriminating power of plan
Operating Characteristic Curve
AQL LTPD
| = 0.10
o =
0.05
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

a
c
c
e
p
t
a
n
c
e
,

P
a

{
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0.80
{
Proportion defective
1.00
OC curve for n and c
Average Outgoing Quality (AOQ)
Expected number of defective items passed
to customer
Average outgoing quality limit (AOQL) is
maximum point on AOQ curve
AOQ Curve
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
AOQL
Average
Outgoing
Quality
(Incoming) Percent Defective
AQL LTPD
Double Sampling Plans
Take small initial sample
If # defective < lower limit, accept
If # defective > upper limit, reject
If # defective between limits, take second
sample
Accept or reject based on 2 samples
Less costly than single-sampling plans
Multiple (Sequential) Sampling
Plans
Uses smaller sample sizes
Take initial sample
If # defective < lower limit, accept
If # defective > upper limit, reject
If # defective between limits, resample
Continue sampling until accept or reject lot
based on all sample data
Choosing A Sampling Method
An economic decision
Single sampling plans
high sampling costs
Double/Multiple sampling plans
low sampling costs