Chapter 1

Motivation and Emotion

Important concept
Motivation: Set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior usually toward some goal. Emotion: subjective feeling including arousal, cognitions, and expressions

Theories and Concepts of Motivation

Instinct--inborn, unlearned behaviors universal to species explain motivation. Drive-Reduction--internal tensions push toward satisfying basic needs

Drive Theories of motivation

Drive theory is based on the principle that organisms are born with certain psychological needs and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of homeostasis and relaxation. Morgan identified the two types of drives Primary drives Those which satisfied a basic need within the organism such as hunger, thirst, sleep Further divided in to two types physiological drives and general drives (affection, fear etc.) Secondary drives Those which are learned and or social such as money, status etc

Hull s Drive Reduction Theory

Need: Internal deficiency; causes drive Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger, thirst; activates a response) Response: Action or series of actions designed to attain a goal Goal: Target of motivated behavior

Drive Theory: An Overview

Biological need (need for food, water, oxygen, etc.

Drive state (hunger, thirst, etc.)

Activation of many different behaviors Behaviors that do not reduce drive are weakened Behaviors that reduce drive are strenghtened

Drive-Reduction Theory

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Homeostatic and non-homeostatic drives

Homeostasis is a state of physiological equilibrium in the body. Thalamus is responsible for maintaining homeostasis by balancing the internally triggered drives such as hunger, thirst, body temperature Non-homeostatic drives are triggered off by external events such as emotional arousal and physical activity.

Theories of Human Needs

Achievment motivation McClelland put emphasis on social needs

Two needs, Need for Achievement (nAch) Need for affiliation (nAff)

Abraham Maslow and Needs

Hierarchy of Human Needs: Maslows ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree Basic Needs: First four levels of needs in Maslows hierarchy
Lower needs tend to be more strong than higher needs

Meta-Needs (Growth Needs): Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization Maslow identified 17 meta-needs. Some examples are goodness, perfection, beauty, truth, and simplicity.

Fig. 12.12 Maslow believed that lower needs in the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be satisfied before growth motives are fully expressed. Desires for self-actualization are reflected in various meta-needs.

Rogers theory of human needs

Need for positive regard The idea that each of us needs to be seen positively by others. Need for self-actualisation To develop oneself, ones abilities and talents To strive for personal growth

Learned helplessness How? Seligman referred that the experience of being a sufferer and being helpless, unable to do anything about the problem, produced laziness in which no efforts at all would be made to do anything.

Features of Learned Helplessness

the person must first have been in a situation in which the outcomes were not affected by their behavior. The experience produces an expectation that their behavior will not have any effect on the outcome. This expectation then produces a number of behavioral and cognitive problems, resulting in the person experiencing a sense of lack of control.

Arousal
Arousal: our general level of activation The concept of arousal relates to the activities of the Autonomic nervous system and its effect on human behavior. Sympathetic division is to prepare the body for action whereas parasympathetic division is more concerned with resting and storing energy for future use.

Physiological Component and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Measuring Arousal
Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR)
Detect the increase in electrical conductivity of the skin which is caused by sweating.

Voice Stress Analyzer

By using a spectrograph, analysed the slightly identified flattened tones of an individual under stress.

Polygraph: also called lie detecter

Measuring many different physical indicators that the person is under stress, such as blood pressure, pulse rate, GSR and heart rate.

A typical polygraph includes devices for measuring heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response. Pens mounted on the top of the machine make a record of bodily responses on a moving strip of paper. (right) Changes in the area marked by the arrow indicate emotional arousal. If such responses appear when a person answers a question, he or she may be lying, but other causes of arousal are also possible.

Yerkes-Dodson law
There is a relationship between, optimal performance and the level of arousal necessary.

Stress and stress Adaptation

Selye (1956) identified GAS i.e., General Adaptation Syndrome Comprised of three stages Alarm stage Resistance stage Exhaustion stage Example: Experiment of Brady

Why do we experience stress

Locus of control referring to the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them. Rotter (1975) gave two types: Internal and external locus of control Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. E.g, effort, Experience less stress Externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances. E.g, luck Experience more stress, do not make effort to change their circumstances.

Resistance to illness
Lowered resistance to illness ultimately leads to the feelings of fatigue and weakness. Long-term psychological effects are increased irritability, pessimistic outlook, burnout In otherwords it makes our immune system weak, more susceptible to infections and diseases.

Type A and type B behavior patterns

Type A personality behavior was first described as a potential risk factor for heart disease in the 1950s by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Mike Jordan. After a ten-year study of healthy men between the ages of 35 and 59, Friedman and Rosenman estimated that Type A behavior doubles the risk of coronary heart disease in otherwise healthy individuals. This research had a significant effect on the development of the health psychology field, in which psychologists look at how an individual's mental state affects his or her physical health.

Cont
The theory describes a Type A individual as ambitious, aggressive, business-like, controlling, highly competitive, preoccupied with his or her status, time-conscious, arrogant and tightly-wound. People with Type A personalities are often high-achieving "workaholics" who multi-task, push themselves with deadlines, and hate both delays and ambivalence.

The theory describes Type B individuals as perfect contrast to those with Type A personalities. People with Type B personalities are generally apathetic, patient, relaxed, easy-going, no sense of time schedule, and at times lacking an overriding sense of urgency. These individuals tend to be sensitive of other people's feelings

Therapies for reducing long-term stress Biofeedback Biofeedback is a treatment technique in which people are trained to improve their health by using signals from their own bodies. Psychologists use it to help tense and anxious clients learn to relax. GSR-sensitive pad which wraps around the finger which is connected to a box that produces a tone. The higher the tone, the higher level of autonomic activity.

Attributional therapy
Attributional style is a person's way of explaining the positive and negative events in her life. Attributional style may also be referred to as explanatory style.

Emotions
1. Physiological responses 2. Subjective feelings 3. Expressive reactions

Theories and Concepts of Emotion

Three Components of Emotion 1. Physiological- arousal comes from brain (particularly the limbic system) and autonomic nervous system (ANS)

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Theories and Concepts of Emotion

Three Components of Emotion (Continued)

2. Cognitive-thoughts, values and expectations 3. Behavioral-expression, gestures, and body positions

How do we respond
James Lange

Emotions derives from our perceptions of physiological

changes in the body. Emotion Inducing Behavioral and bodily response

Subjective interpretation we do not weep because we feel sorrow: we feel sorrow because we weep.

Cannon Bard
An emotion-arousing stimulus simaltaneously triggers both a physiological arousal and the experience of an emotion E.g., I see a lion, I am afraid and trembling.
First discovered the fight or flight "syndrome of arousal.

Schacter Singer
according to Schachter-Singer Theory, an event causes physiological arousal first. You must then identify a reason for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion. Stimulus physiological arousal cognitive interpretation of arousal emotion

Lazaruss Appraisal Theory

Proposes that feelings of emotion are determined by an immediate evaluative judgment combined with the behavioral or cognitive reactions produced by the emotion.

Weiners attributional theory

The explanation of social perception by examining how others allocate intention or meaning to the behaviour of others.

The facial feedback theory

Ekman proposed that the facial expressions which people use to signify emotions may in themselves be involved in promoting those emotions, by providing feedback to the brain. Social signals like smiling are its cause. Similar to the concept of James-Lange approach

Self and Others

Concepts of self
William James argued that the self concept develops from social comparison. The self-concept is like a looking glass Cooley emphasized that feedback from others is important in the development of self. Mead argued that that the self-concept is being formed directly through social experience. He gave imp to Social Interaction Goffman perceived self-concept as the collection of social roles played by individual.

Self-Concept
Consisting of two components: the self-image and the self-esteem Self-image is a factual self-portrait, including information abt the body, weight etc.. Makes the persons beliefs. Self-esteem is the evaluative component which internalized social judgments and ideas. Eg: High self-esteem individuals were found more active, expressive and successful than low self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1968). Carl rogers believed that self-esteem develops thru childhood or conditions of worth Put emphasize on self-actualisation

Self-perception(Bem, 1967)
Idea that we develop an impression of our own personality by inferring wht we are like from the way that we act. Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1989). Belief that one is capable of doing something effectively. Eg: Collins found that those children had high selfefficacy beliefs solved more problems more quickly than low self-efficacy

 Bandura identified four psychological processes which are affected by self-efficacy beliefs. Cognitive, Motivational, affective, Selection

Social Identity theory

Tajfel and Turner argued that social groups are the basic units that people use for making sense out of their social worlds and it is our membership of social groups which affects how we see ourselves.