By: Lucero nuestro obregoso

earthquake measuring

Seismologists use two main devices to measure an earthquake: a seismograph and a seismoscope.

measures the occurrence or the time of

an occurrence of an earthquake is a simple device without any technological background. oldest and most accurate instrument for measuring direction.

Seismoscope

When Earth shakes, the pen in a seismograph moves back and forth on a piece of paper reflecting the changing senses the vibration and sends it to a intensity of the vibrations by responding machine called a to the motion of the ground surface beneath the instrument. Each picture is called a that draws pictures of an earthquakes movement.

seismometer

seismograph

seismogram

Size it up

From the data expressed in seismograms, scientists can determine A seismograph records the pattern of shock waves caused by an the time, Seismographs are equipped with electromagnetic sensors that earthquake. the epicenter, translate motions into electrical changes, which are processed and the focal ground depth, recorded by instrument. A record produced by a seismograph on a and the type the of faulting of an earthquake and display screen or paper printout is called a seismogram. can estimate how much energy was released.

OF SEISMOMETRY EARLY HISTORY

simple

earthquake technology accurate

mechanical

developed by a Chinese scientist,

Chang Heng the first instrument for determining the direction of an earthquake invented in 132 AD. was not only the first seismoscope but also very accurate and precise

Dragon Jar

developed br Nicholas Cirillo, the first Cirillos device consisted of a pendulum that
mechanical device used to study earthquakes swung freely. The tremors of the earthquake in 1731. caused the pendulum to swing. The lines caused by the pendulum indicated the amplitude of the ground motion.

Cirillos Device

invented by D. Domenico Salsano, a

clockmaker and mechanic, a similar device to Nicholas Cirillo. was a long pendulum with a brush connected at the tip. The brush would then trace the motions of the earthquakes tremors with slow-drying ink onto an ivory slab.

Salsano's Device

had U-shaped tubes filled with

mercury and arranged along the compass points. was the first device to accurately record the time and of an earthquake while also recording the duration and the intensity of the earthquake (Inventors).

Mercury Seismometer

Mercury Seismometer

In 1880 John Milne, an English

seismologist and geologist, is credited for the development of the first modern seismograph in 1880. Milnes seismograph consists of three parts: the inertia member, the transducer, and a recorder.

Seismograph

The Horizontal Pendulum

seismograph was improved after World War II. It is widely used throughout the United States to record long period waves.

Press-Ewing Seismograph

Two General Types of Vibrations:

1. Surface 2.

Body waves, which travel through the Earth

waves, which travel along the Earth's surface

minimize future

probability

earthquakes locating
theoretical investigations strain accumulates

Loss of life

The radius of each circle is equal to the distance from that seismometer to the epicenter. The point at which all of the circles intersect is the The time between the arrival of the P waves and the arrival of the epicenter. This process is called triangulation. Today, computers perform S waves, called lag time, tells scientists how far the waves traveled. all of epicenter these calculations. The can then be located by drawing circles around at
least three seismometer stations.

Andmagnitude Intensity

motion earthquakes strength

Earths surface

record

Seismic waves

Magnitude

The size of the waves on a seismogram indicates the amount of ground motion. The amount of ground motion can be used to calculate magnitude. Magnitude is the measure of an earthquakes strength. The larger the magnitude of an earthquake is, the stronger the earthquake is.

Magnitude Scale:
Richter Magnitude Scale (Ml) Surface Waves Magnitude Scale (Ms) Body Wave Magnitude Scale (Mb) Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw)

Magnitude

named after Dr. Charles F. Richter of the California Institute of Technology, is the best known scale for measuring the magnitude of earthquakes. It is based upon the amount of energy released by the rock movements. The definition of magnitude in the Richter scale is the logarithm, to the base 10, of the maximum seismic wave amplitude [in thousandths of a millimeter] recorded on a special seismograph called the Wood-Anderson, at a distance of 100 kilometers [62 miles] from the epicenter. An earthquake with a Richter magnitude of 2 is about the smallest earthquake that can be felt by humans without instrumental assistance.

Class Great Major

Magnitude 8 or more 7 - 7.9

Strong
Moderate

6 - 6.9
5 - 5.9

Light
Minor

4 - 4.9
3 -3.9

MAGNITUDE 2.5 or less 2.5 to 5.4 5.5 to 6.0 6.1 to 6.9 7.0 to 7.9 8.0 or greater

EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph. Often felt, but only causes minor damage. Slight damage to buildings and other structures. May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas. Major earthquake. Serious damage. Great earthquake. Can totally destroy communities near the epicenter.

ESTIMATED NUMBER EACH YEAR 900,000 30,000 500 100 20 One every 5 to 10 years

The

and nature of fault slippage, provides a more consistent measure than the Richter Scale. It measures the amount of energy released by the earthquake- an amount that is dependent of a rocks properties, area of the fault surface, and amount of movement along the fault zone.

Moment Magnitude Scale, which takes into account the amount

Intensity

The intensity is a subjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a particular location. Intensity measures the effects of an earthquake at Earths surface.

The

effects in a given locality in values ranging from I to XII. Evaluation of earthquake intensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field investigations are studied and interpreted.

Modified Mercalli Scale

expresses the intensity of an earthquake's

MMI LEVEL I II III

DESCRIPTION
Not felt except by a very few under favorable circumstances. Typically marginal and long-period effects of strong earthquakes. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on the upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing. Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to that of passing truck. Duration may be estimated.

IV
V

VI

If during the day, felt indoors by many; outdoors by few. If at night, few awakened. Dishes, windows and doors rattle, walls creak. A sensation such as heavy truck shaking the building. Standing cars rock noticeably. In the upper range of IV wooden walls and frames creak. Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened; direction may be estimated. Some dishes and windows broken, some plaster cracked, unstable objects overturned. Disturbance of trees, poles and other tall objects. Pendulum clocks may stop. Felt by all; many people frightened and run outdoors. Persons walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken. Books off shelves; pictures off walls. Weak plaster and masonry D cracked; minor chimney damage. Movement of moderately heavy furniture; some furniture overturned. Small bells ring (school, church). Trees, bushes shaken visibly, or heard to rustle. If during the day, felt indoors by many; outdoors by few. If at night, few awakened. Dishes, windows and doors rattle, walls creak. A sensation such as heavy truck shaking the building. Standing cars rock noticeably. In the upper range of IV wooden walls and frames creak.

IV

VII

VIII

IX

Everybody runs outdoors. Noticed by persons driving cars. Hanging objects quiver. Furniture broken. Damage to masonry D3, including cracks. Some cracks in masonry C. Weak chimneys broken at roof line. Fall of plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices, unbraced parapets and architectural ornaments. Waves on pond; water turbid with mud. Small slides and caving in along sand or gravel banks. Large bells ring. Concrete irrigation ditches damaged. Persons driving in cars are disturbed. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse. Some damage to masonry B; none to masonry A. Fall of stucco and some masonry walls. Panel walls thrown out of frame structures. Chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, walls, and columns fall. Heavy furniture overturned or damaged. Changes in well water. Sand and mud ejected in small amounts. Cracks in wet ground and on steep slopes. Branches broken from the trees. General panic. Masonry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes with complete collapse; masonry B seriously damaged. General damage to foundations. Frame structures, if not bolted, shifted off foundations. Frames racked. Serious damage to reservoirs. Ground noticeably cracked, underground pipes broken. In alluviated areas sand and mud ejected, earthquake fountains and sand craters appear.

XI XII

Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed, foundations ruined, ground badly cracked. Serious damage to dams, dikes, embankments. Rails bent slightly. Considerable landslides from steep slopes and river banks. Water splashed over banks. Sand and mud shifted horizontally on beaches and flat land. Rails bent greatly. Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures in ground. Underground pipes out of service. Earth slumps and land slips in soft ground. Total damage. Waves are seen on the ground surface. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.

Distance

construction Of earthquakes effects local geology

resistance

epicenter

Distance from the Epicenter

Have you ever tossed a pebble into a pond? The circles that surround the pebble grow larger, or expand, as they move outward. The same is true of seismic waves as they move away from an epicenter. The total energy in a seismic wave stays relatively constant as the wave travels. So, the amount of energy at any point on the wave decreases as the wave grows increasingly larger. In general, the farther an area is from the epicenter, the less destructive the earthquake will be.

Local Geology
The amount of damage that will be caused by an earthquake depends on the material through which seismic waves travel. In general, solid rock is not likely to increase the intensity or the time that the ground shakes. However, seismic waves are particularly dangerous when they travel through loose soils and sediments that contain large amounts of water. When water-saturated soil or sediment is shaken by seismic waves, the grains that make up the sediment lose contact with one another and are surrounded by water.

Earthquake-Resistant Construction

Structures that are made of brick or concrete are not very flexible and are easily damaged by earthquakes, as Figure 6 shows. Wood and steel are more flexible. Flexible structures are more likely to survive strong ground shaking. In addition, taller buildings are more susceptible to damage than shorter buildings are. Structures that have solid foundations that are firmly anchored in the ground are most likely to be left undamaged by earthquakes.

How to handle EarthQuakes

How to handle EarthQuakes

Why Rescuers and Experts Recommend DROP,COVER AND HOLD ON ?

What Rescuers and Experts DO NOT Recommend you do during an Earthquake?

How to handle EarthQuakes

THE eND