Cell Details.

Cell anatomy.
DR. S. DAM.
Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.
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Endosymbiosis.
4
Evidence supports eukaryotic cells are descendents
of separate prokaryotic cells that joined together in a symbiotic union. Mitochondrion seems to be the "great granddaughter" of free-living bacterium that was engulfed by another cell, as a meal, and ended up staying permanent houseguest. Host cell profited from chemical energy mitochondrion produced, mitochondrion benefited from protected, nutrient-rich environment surrounding it. This kind of "internal" symbiosis one organism taking up permanent residence inside another evolving into a single lineage is called endosymbiosis.
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Evidence for endosymbiosis

6
Biologist Lynn Margulis first made the case for
endosymbiosis in the 1960s, but for many years other biologists were skeptical. Why should we think that a mitochondrion used to be a free-living organism in its own right? Decades of accumulated evidence, supports Margulis's ideas: endosymbiosis is best explanation for evolution of eukaryotic cell. Evidence for endosymbiosis applies not only to mitochondria, but also to other cellular organelles. Chloroplast organelles were once free-living bacteria. The endosymbiotic event that generated mitochondria happened early , because all eukaryotes have them. A similar event brought chloroplasts into some eukaryotic cells, creating the lineage that led to plants.
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Many striking similarities between prokaryotes and mitochondria.
Membranes Cell membranes 7 like prokaryotic cell . DNA Circular DNA genome like bacteria's genome but
much smaller. DNA passed from mitochondrion to offspring separate from "host" cell's genome in nucleus.
Reproduction Multiply by pinching in half the same
process used by bacteria. Every new mitochondrion must be produced from a parent mitochondrion in this way; if a cell's mitochondria are removed, it can't build new ones from scratch.
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Gene function transfer.

8
First eukaryotic cell evolved more than billion
years ago. Since then, these organelles have become completely dependent on their host cells. E.g. many key proteins needed by mitochondrion are imported from rest of cell. Sometime during their long-standing relationship, the genes that code for these proteins were transferred from the mitochondrion to its host's genome. This mixing of genomes is irreversible at which two independent organisms become a single individual.
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Cell Wall
9
A remarkable structure. Most significant difference between plant
and other eukaryotic cells. It is rigid (many micrometers in thickness) gives plants defined shape. Creates important difference between plant and animal cell functions.
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Cell wall.
10
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Layers of cell wall.

11
Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell
walls: The middle lamella, a layer rich in pectins. This outermost layer forms interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together. The primary cell wall, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing. The secondary cell wall, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells in xylem, possess a secondary wall containing lignin, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall.
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Material in the cell wall.

12
Varies between species & cell type. Composition, properties, and form of the cell
wall may change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions. Bacteria peptidoglycan. Archaean - glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi - glucosamine polymer chitin. Algae - glycoproteins and polysaccharides. Diatoms - biogenic silica. Accessory molecules found anchored to cell wall.
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Cell wall.
13
Composed of cellulose fibre, polysaccharides,
and proteins. In new cells cell wall is thin and pliable which allows the young cell to grow. First cell wall of growing cells is called primary cell wall. When fully grown, may retain primary wall, sometimes thickening it, or deposits new layers of different material, called secondary cell wall. Each cell's wall interacts with its neighbours to form a tightly bound plant structure. Chemical signals and cellular excretions pass between cells.
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Permeability of cell wall.

14
Primary cell wall of most plant cells is semi-
permeable. Permits passage of small molecules and small proteins, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60 kDa. Key nutrients especially water and CO2 distributed through from cell wall to cell wall in apoplastic flow. The pH is an important factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls.
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Purpose of cell wall.

15
Similar purpose in organisms that possess
them. Gives cells rigidity and strength. Offering protection against mechanical stress. Build and hold its shape (morphogenesis). Limits entry of toxic large molecules. Creation of a stable osmotic environment by preventing osmotic lysis and helping to retain water.
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What plants lost?

16
Nervous systems.
Immune system.
Mobility.
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Cell Membranes A dynamic cell organelle.

17
The cell membrane defined the first cell.
Since then, it has evolved to become the
repository of surface receptors and surface antigens. It is a biological membrane separating the interior of cells from outside environment. Selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls traffic of substances in and out of cells. Protects cell from its surroundings.
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Cell processes.
18
Cell membranes are involved in a variety of
cellular processes such as 1. Cell adhesion. 2. Ion conductivity. 3. Cell signaling. 4. Antigenic activity. 5. Attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton. Can be artificially reassembled.
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Cell Membrane
19
Cell membrane is a flexible lipid bilayer. The lipid molecules (mostly phospholipids) that
make up the membrane have a polar hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails. When the lipids are immersed in an aqueous solution the lipids spontaneously bury the tails together and leave the hydrophilic heads exposed. It is a handy membrane to use as it can automatically fix itself when torn. There are three different major classes of lipid molecules - phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids.
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Phospholipids.
20
Class of lipids that are a major component of all cell
membranes as they can form lipid bilayers. Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride, a phosphate group, and simple organic molecule such as choline. The first phospholipid identified as such in biological tissues was lecithin or phosphatidylcholine in egg yolk. Structure of the phospholipid molecule consists of hydrophobic tails & hydrophilic head. Biological membranes also contain another class of lipid sterol interspersed among the phospholipids. Together they provide membrane fluidity and mechanical strength.
Purified phospholipids are produced commercially and have found applications in nanotechnology and materials science.
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21
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Phospholipid synthesis.
22
Phospholipid synthesis occurs in cytosol
adjacent to ER. Studded with proteins that act in synthesis (GPAT and LPAAT acyl transferases, phosphatase and choline phosphotransferase) and allocation (flippase and floppase). Eventually a vesicle will bud off from the ER containing phospholipids destined for cytoplasmic cellular membrane on its exterior leaflet and phospholipids destined for the exoplasmic cellular membrane on its inner leaflet.
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23
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Lipid bilayer.
24
Lipid bilayer form through the process of self-assembly. Cell membrane consists of amphipathic phospholipids which
spontaneously arrange. Amphipathic biomolecules : phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, fatty acids, bile acids, saponins, etc.
Amphipathic nature of phospholipids forms bilayers in cell
membrane.
They position their polar (hydrophilic) groups towards the
surrounding aqueous medium & nonpolar (hydrophobic) chains towards inside of the bilayer, so two nonpolar region between two polar ones. Forces such as van der Waals, electrostatic, hydrogen bonds, and noncovalent interactions all contribute to the formation of the lipid bilayer.
Hydrophobic interactions are the major driving force in the
formation of lipid bilayers.
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Arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer.

25
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Lipid bilayers arrangement.

26
Generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. Hydrophobic interior of lipid bilayer does not allow polar
molecules to enter e.g. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins & ions from diffusing but allow passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. Cell controls movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates. Cells have devised means of transferring small polar molecules. Transport proteins each specialized for a certain molecule, can transport polar molecules across the membrane. There are several types of membrane transport proteins. Uniports simply move solutes from one side to another. Cotransport systems work by simultaneously sending two solutes across the lipid bilayer.
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Cotransport systems
27
1.
Symport in which solutes are sent in the same direction. 2. Antiport in which they are sent in opposite directions. These transport proteins work passively as the cell doesn't have to expend energy sending the solute in or out. Solutes move in its natural direction - i.e. moving from more concentrated solution to less or from positive to negative.
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Co Transport.
28
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Diverse functions of phospholipid bilayer.

29
Regulate movement of materials into and out
of cells. Phospholipid bilayer structure with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. Membranes in prokaryotes and in mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.
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Chemiosmosis.
30
Movement of ions across a selectively permeable
membrane down their electrochemical gradient. It relates to generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration. An Ion gradient has potential energy and can be used to power chemical reactions when the ions pass through a channel. Hydrogen ions (protons) will diffuse from an area of high proton concentration to an area of lower proton concentration.
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Chemiosmosis.
31
An electrochemical concentration gradient of
protons across a membrane could be harnessed to make ATP. This process is like to osmosis of water across a membrane, which is why it is called chemiosmosis. ATP synthase is the enzyme that makes ATP by chemiosmosis. Allows protons to pass through the membrane and uses the kinetic energy to phosphorylate ADP, making ATP. The generation of ATP by chemiosmosis occurs in chloroplasts and mitochondria as well as in most bacteria and archaea.
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Chemiosmosis.
32
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Membrane proteins.
33
Different proteins are present on surface used
for various functions such as cell surface receptors, enzymes, surface antigens, and transporters. Many membrane-associated proteins have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. Hydrophilic regions are used to help anchor protein inside of the cell membrane. Some proteins extend across lipid bilayer others cross bilayer several times.
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Cell membrane proteins.

34
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Functions of cell membrane.

35
Physical separation of intracellular components
from extracellular environment. Anchors cytoskeleton providing shape to cell. Attaches to extracellular matrix and other cells to group cells into tissues. Selectively permeable to regulate what enters/exits, facilitating transport of materials for survival. Movement of substances can be "passive" (without energy) or active (expending energy). Membrane also maintains the cell potential. Employs a number of transport mechanisms.
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Cell potential.
36
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Membrane potential/transmembrane potential/membrane voltage

37
Difference in electric potential between interior & exterior. Typical values - 40 mV to 80 mV. Serves as insulator & diffusion barrier to movement of ions. Ion transporter/pump proteins actively push ions across
membrane to establish concentration gradients. Ion channels allow ions to move across down concentration gradients a process known as facilitated diffusion. Combination of ion pumps and ion channels is electrically equivalent to a set of batteries and resistors inserted in the membrane creating a voltage difference between two sides. All eukaryotic cells (including cells from animals, plants, and fungi) maintain a nonzero transmembrane potential usually with a negative voltage in interior as compared to exterior.
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Why membrane potential?

38
Allows cell to function as battery providing power to
operate molecular devices embedded in membrane. In electrically excitable cells as neurons and muscle cells is used for transmitting signals between
different parts of cell.
Signals generated by opening or closing of ion
channels at one point in the membrane producing a local change in the membrane potential. This change in electric field can quickly be detected by either adjacent or more distant ion channels in membrane. Those ion channels can then depolarize reproducing & propagating the signal.
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1. Passive diffusion and osmosis.

39
Some substances biochemical's &
other atomic or molecules as CO2 & O2 can move across by diffusion a passive transport process. Unlike active transport does not require input of energy. Rate of transport depends on semipermeability of membrane which in turn depends on organization and characteristics of the membrane lipids and proteins.
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Kinds of passive transport.

40
Diffusion.
Facilitated diffusion.
Filtration. Osmosis.
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Diffusion.
41
Net movement of material from area of high
concentration to lower concentration. Difference termed as concentration gradient and diffusion continues till gradient eliminated. Moving solutes down the concentration gradient compared with active transport, which moves material "against the concentration gradient.
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Simple diffusion/Osmosis.
42
Simple diffusion and osmosis are similar.
Simple diffusion is passive movement of
solute until concentration of solute reaches equilibrium. Osmosis like simple diffusion but specifically describes movement of water (not the solute)until there is equal concentration of water and solute on both sides.
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Simple diffusion.
43
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44
Carrier-mediated diffusion where movement
of molecules via special transport proteins embedded in membrane. Large molecules such as glucose are insoluble in lipids and too large to fit through the membrane pores. Will bind with specific carrier proteins & complex will be bonded to a receptor site and moved through. Facilitated diffusion is a passive process as solutes move down concentration gradient and don't use energy.
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45
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Filtration.
46
Movement of water and solute due to
hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system. Depending on the size of the membrane pores, only solutes of a certain size may pass through it. E.g. membrane pores of Bowman's capsule are very small, and only albumin has any chance of being filtered through (prevent wastage). Membrane pores of liver cells are extremely large to allow a variety of solutes to pass through & be metabolized (allow utilization).
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Filtration.
47
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Osmosis.
48
Diffusion of water molecules across a
selectively permeable membrane. Net movement of water molecules from a solution of low water potential to an area of high water potential. Cell with a less negative water potential will draw in water but this depends on other factors as well such as solute potential pressure in the cell created by solutes.
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Osmosis.
49
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2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters.

50
Nutrients as sugars or amino acids must enter
the cell and products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules are pumped across membrane by transmembrane transporters or diffuse through protein channels such as Aquaporins in the case of water (H2O). These proteins, also called permeases, are quite specific, recognizing and transporting only a limited group of chemicals, often only a single substance.
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Transmembrane protein channels/Ion channels.

51
Pore-forming membrane proteins whose
functions include; 1. Establishing resting membrane potential. 2. Shaping action potentials. 3. Shaping electrical signals by gating the flow of ions. 4. Controlling the flow of ions and regulating cell volume. Present in membranes of all cells.
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Ion channel.
52
Narrow water-filled tunnels that allow only ions of a
certain size and/or charge to pass through. This characteristic called selective permeability. Channel pore is just one or two atoms wide at its narrowest point & is selective for specific ions such as sodium or potassium. Some channels may be permeable to more than one type of ion sharing a common charge positive (cations) or negative (anions). Ions often move through segments of channel pore in single file nearly as quickly as the ions move through free solution. In many ion channels, passage through the pore is governed by a "gate", which may be opened or closed in response to chemical or electrical signals, temperature, or mechanical force.
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1.Channel domains typically four per channel.

2. Outer vestibule. 3. Selectivity filter . 4. Diameter of selectivity filter. 53 5. Phosphorylation site. 6. Cell membrane.
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Sodium channels are integral membrane proteins forming ion channels conducting Na+ through plasma membrane.
54
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VDCC.
55
Voltage-dependent calcium channels are a
group of voltage-gated ion channels found in membrane of excitable cells (e.g., muscle, glial cells, neurons, etc with permeability to Ca2+. These channels are slightly permeable to sodium ions so are called Ca2+Na+ channels. Permeability to calcium is 1000-fold greater than sodium.
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VDCC.
56
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VGKC.
57
Voltage-gated potassium
channels are transmembrane channels specific for potassium & sensitive to voltage changes in cell's membrane potential. During action potentials they play a crucial role in returning depolarized cell to resting state.
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VGKC.
58
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3. Endocytosis.
59
Cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. Plasma membrane creates a small deformation
inward, called an invagination in which the substance to be transported is captured. The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles (cell eating or phagocytosis), small molecules and ions (cell drinking or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis requires energy and is thus active transport.
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Endocytosis.
60
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Low density lipoprotein, transferrin, growth factors, antibodies.

61
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Constitute 1/3 of membrane area of some tissues being abundant in smooth muscle, type I pneumocytes, fibroblasts, adipocytes, & endothelial cells.
62
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Bacteria, dead tissue, cell & small mineral particles are phagocytosed.
63
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EM of a phagocyte phagocytosing anthrax bacilli.

64
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Exocytosis.
65
Extruding contents to the surrounding
medium. Occurs in various cells 1. Remove undigested residues of substances. 2. Secrete substances as hormones and enzymes. 3. Transport a substance completely across cellular barrier.
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Process of Exocytosis.
66
Undigested waste-containing food vacuole or
secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus is moved by cytoskeleton from interior to the surface. Vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are thus fused. A passage is formed in fused membrane and vesicles discharges its contents outside.
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Exocytosis.
67
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Membrane Receptors.
68
The cell membrane is pocketed with receptors
and antigens. Molecules targeted toward that specific cell will bind with the cell surface receptor, which binds the signalling molecule and sends a signal that alters the behaviour of the target cell. Antigens are used to tell the cell whether foreign materials are present. If any foreign materials are detected the immune system will mobilize its killer T-cells to destroy the foreign cell.
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Cell surface receptors membrane receptors, transmembrane receptors.

69
Specialized integral membrane proteins that
take part in communication between cell and the outside world. Extracellular signaling molecules hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors or cell recognition molecules attach to receptor, triggering changes in function of cell. Process is called signal transduction: Binding initiates a chemical change on intracellular side of membrane. Receptors play a unique and important role in cellular communications and signal transduction.
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Receptors.
70
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Structure and mechanism.

71
Many transmembrane receptors are composed of two or more protein subunits which operate collectively and may dissociate when ligands bind, fall off, or at another stage of their "activation" cycles. Classified based on their molecular structure, or because the structure is unknown in any detail for all but a few receptors, based on their hypothesized (and sometimes experimentally verified) membrane topology. The polypeptide chains of the simplest are predicted to cross the lipid bilayer only once, while others cross as many as seven times (for example, the so-called Gprotein coupled receptors). There are various kinds, such as glycoprotein and lipoprotein. Hundreds of different receptors are known and many more are yet to be discovered. Almost all known membrane receptors are transmembrane proteins. A certain cell membrane can have several membrane receptors with various amounts on its surface. A certain receptor may also exist at varying concentrations on different membrane surfaces, depending on the membrane and cell function. Since receptors usually form clusters on the membrane surface, the distribution of receptors on membrane surface is mostly heterogeneous.
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Receptor modulation.
72
Extracellular signal molecule: Produced by one cell and is
capable of traveling to neighboring cells or to cells that may be far away. Receptor protein: Surface receptor proteins bind to signal molecule and communicate its presence inward into the cell. Intracellular signaling proteins: Distribute signal to appropriate parts of the cell. Binding of signal molecule to receptor protein will activate intracellular signaling proteins initiating a signaling cascade (a series of intracellular signaling molecules that act sequentially). Target proteins: Conformations or other properties of target proteins are altered when a signaling pathway is active and changes the behavior of the cell.
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Receptor modulation.
73
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Cytoplasm.
74
Area of the cytoplasm outside of the individual
organelles is called the cytosol a gel like material. Largest structure - 54% volume. Milieu where metabolic functions occur. Contains thousands of enzymes for metabolic activity as glycolysis & gluconeogenesis & biosynthesis of sugars, fatty acids & amino acids. Cytosol takes molecules & breaks them down for use by organelles. E.g. - Glucose is ingested and broken down into pyruvate in the cytosol, for use in the mitochondria.
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Cytosol.
75
Complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved
molecules, and water that fills much of the volume of a cell. Also contains the protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes. The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm. Due to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other.
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Cytosol inclusions.
76
The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances
suspended in the cytosol. Range of inclusions in different cell types as crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. Lipid droplets are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols. Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types.
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Cytoplasm.
77
All contents of prokaryotes organisms are contained in
cytoplasm. Inside nucleus is nucleoplasm. 70% to 90% water & colorless. It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as many metabolic pathways including glycolysis, and processes such as cell division. The inner, granular mass is called the endoplasm and the outer, clear and glassy layer is called the cell cortex or the ectoplasm. Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is thought to be a signaling activity for metabolic processes. In plants, movements of the cytoplasm around vacuoles are known as cytoplasmic streaming.
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Cytoskeleton.
78
Eukaryotic cells have variety of distinct
shapes and internal organizations. Cells are capable of changing shape, moving organelles & move from place to place. Requires a network a protein filaments placed in cytoplasm known as cytoskeleton. Two most important protein filaments are called the actin filaments & the microtubules. Actin is for contraction (like in muscles) & microtubules for structural strength.
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Cytoskeleton.
79
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Cytoskeleton.
80
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Cytoskeleton.
81
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Nucleus.
82
It is the cellular control centre and exists only
in eukaryotes. Contains the genetic information for the cell, in the form of DNA and RNA. The genetic information is surrounded by a two-layer nuclear envelope and it is generally found at the centre of the cell. Nucleus is responsible for communicating with other organelles in the cytoplasm (the gel-like space surrounding the nucleus). Messages from inside the nucleus travel through pores on the nuclear envelope to enter the cytoplasm.
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Nucleus.
83
Inside the nucleus, called the nucleoplasm, DNA is
bound by histone proteins and organized into chromatin. During replication, the chromatins are condensed to form highly organized structures called chromosomes. Besides the genetic information, most nuclei also contain one or more spherical-shaped organelles called the nucleoli. The nucleolus is where ribosomes are assembled.
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Nucleic Acids / DNA / RNA

84
At the core of each cell are molecules that store the
blueprint of life, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of four types of molecules known as nucleic acids or nucleotides. The four nucleotides are: 1. Adenine (A), 2. Guanine (G), 3. Cytosine (C), 4. Thymine (T). Classified into two families: Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are known as purine and cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are known as pyrimidine.
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Double helix of DNA.

85
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Double helix.
86
The chemical structures of the four nucleotides are planar
due to the delocalized electrons in the five- and sixmembered rings, each having a thickness of 3.4 angstroms. When the nucleotides form the double helix structure, A-T and G-C are joined together by a hydrogen bond to form a base pair. The base pairs are then joined together by Pentose sugar bonds to form the helix. X-ray data shows that there are 10 base pairs per turn of the helix. The helical model of DNA also explains the theory of genetic replication. James Watson once described it as the "pretty molecule" because the method of replication is so self evident in this structure.
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DNA replication.
87
During replication, the hydrogen bonds between nucleotides
break and allow each single strand of DNA to serve as a template for replication of the other half. The two identical copies of newly synthesized of DNA are then distributed to two new daughter cells. Because during each cycle of replication half of the old DNA is preserved, DNA replication is said to be semi-conservative. Although DNA contains the genetic blueprint of life, it requires the assistance of ribonucleic acid (RNA) to be functional. RNA also consists of strands of nucleic acids joined together by sugar-phosphate bonds. Unlike DNA, RNA substitutes the nucleotide thymine (T) with uracil (U) and exists as single strands. After DNA is converted into strands of RNA, the messenger RNA (mRNA) is sent to the ribosome to direct the synthesis of proteins.
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Chromosome.
88 in the form of DNA, is A cell's genetic information,
stored in the nucleus. Space inside the nucleus is limited and has to contain billions of nucleotides that compose the cell's DNA. Therefore, the DNA has to be highly organized. There are several levels to the DNA packaging. DNA starts out as single strand double helices and continues to be condensed until it reaches the chromosomal level. At the finest level, the nucleotides are organized in the form of linear strands of double helices. DNA strand is wrapped around histones, a form of DNA binding proteins. Each unit of DNA wrapped around a histone molecule is called a nucleosome. The nucleosomes are linked together by the long strand of DNA.
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89
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90
To further condense the DNA material, nucleosomes are compacted
together to form chromatin fibers. The chromatin fibers then fold together into large looped domain. During the mitotic cycle, the looped domains are organized into distinct structures called the chromosomes. Chromosomes are also used as a way of referring to the genetic basis of an organism as either diploid or haploid. Many eukaryotic cells have two sets of the chromosomes and are called diploid. Other cells that only contain one set of the chromosomes are called haploid. The chromosome also plays an important role in cell death-related aging phenomena. At the tips of chromosomes are segments called telomeres. As a cell's DNA is damaged, the telomeres are shortened. Once the telomeres have been reduced to a level, the cell decides that it can no longer repair itself and initiates apoptosis, the cellular death process.
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Mitochondria - cellular power plant.

91
0.5 to 1.0 micrometer m. Number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely
by organism and tissue type. Many cells have a single mitochondrion, whereas others can contain several thousand. Consists of four major sections : 1. Outer membrane. 2. Intermembrane space. 3. Inner membrane. 4. Matrix.
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EM of Mitochondria.
92
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Structure of mitochondria.
93
The Outer Membrane Contains a number of large
transport proteins which allow for large molecules to enter. This membrane includes proteins that can convert lipid substrates into forms that can be used by the matrix. Intermembrane Space Contains enzymes that use ATP to phosphorylate other nucleotides. Inner Membrane Highly convoluted forming many folds called cristae. Greatly increase surface area allowing more work done in a smaller space. Matrix The Krebs Cycle takes place here.
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94
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Other tasks of Mitochondria.

95
Signaling.
Cellular differentiation.
Cell death. Control of the cell cycle. Cell growth. Ageing. Implicated in several human diseases like
mitochondrial disorders & cardiac dysfunction and may play a role in the aging process.
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Cell Details.

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Cell anatomy.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Evidence supports eukaryotic cells are descendents

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Evidence for endosymbiosis

Biologist Lynn Margulis first made the case for

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Many striking similarities between prokaryotes and mitochondria.

Reproduction Multiply by pinching in half the same

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Gene function transfer.

First eukaryotic cell evolved more than billion

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

A remarkable structure. Most significant difference between plant

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Layers of cell wall.

Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Material in the cell wall.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Composed of cellulose fibre, polysaccharides,

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Permeability of cell wall.

Primary cell wall of most plant cells is semi-

Purpose of cell wall.

Similar purpose in organisms that possess

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

What plants lost?

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Cell Membranes A dynamic cell organelle.

The cell membrane defined the first cell.

Since then, it has evolved to become the

Cell membranes are involved in a variety of

Class of lipids that are a major component of all cell

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Phospholipid synthesis occurs in cytosol

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Amphipathic nature of phospholipids forms bilayers in cell

They position their polar (hydrophilic) groups towards the

formation of lipid bilayers.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Lipid bilayers arrangement.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Diverse functions of phospholipid bilayer.

Regulate movement of materials into and out

Movement of ions across a selectively permeable

An electrochemical concentration gradient of

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Different proteins are present on surface used

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Cell membrane proteins.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Functions of cell membrane.

Physical separation of intracellular components

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.

Dr. S. Dam slides Amity Teaching module.