MENG 3324: Manufacturing Processes, UTPB, ch05

DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND SURFACES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages Surfaces Measurement of Surfaces Effect of Manufacturing Processes
2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Dimensions and Tolerances

Factors that determine the performance of a manufactured product, other than mechanical and physical properties, include : Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a component specified on the part drawing Tolerances - allowable variations from the specified part dimensions that are permitted in manufacturing
Dimensions (ANSI Y14.5M-1982)

A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measure and indicated on a drawing and in other documents along with lines, symbols, and notes to define the size or geometric characteristic, or both, of a part or part feature" The dimension indicates the part size desired by the designer, if the part could be made with no errors or variations in the fabrication process
Tolerances (ANSI Y14.5M-1982):

A tolerance is "the total amount by which a specific dimension is permitted to vary. The tolerance is the difference between the maximum and minimum limits" Variations occur in any manufacturing process, which are manifested as variations in part size Tolerances are used to define the limits of the allowed variation
Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted in both positive and negative directions from the nominal dimension Possible for a bilateral tolerance to be unbalanced Ex: 2.500 +0.010, -0.005
Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the specified dimension is permitted in only one direction Either positive or negative, but not both
Limit Dimensions
Permissible variation in a part feature size consists of the maximum and minimum dimensions allowed
Measurement
Procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared to a known standard, using an accepted and consistent system of units Measurement provides a numerical value of the quantity of interest, within certain limits of accuracy and precision
Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy - the degree to which a measured value agrees with the true value of the quantity of interest A measurement procedure is accurate when it avoids systematic errors (positive or negative deviations that are consistent from one measurement to the next) Precision - the degree of repeatability in the measurement process Good precision means that random errors in the measurement procedure are minimized
Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages

Precision gage blocks Measuring instruments for linear dimensions Comparative instruments Fixed gages Angular measurements
Precision Gage Blocks

Standards against which other dimensional measuring instruments and gages are compared Usually square or rectangular blocks Surfaces are finished to be dimensionally accurate and parallel to several millionths of an inch and are polished to a mirror finish Precision gage blocks are available in certain standard sizes or in sets, the latter containing a variety of different sized blocks
Measurement of Linear Dimensions

Measuring instruments are divided into two types: Graduated measuring devices include a set of markings on a linear or angular scale to which the object's feature of interest can be compared for measurement Nongraduated measuring devices have no scale and are used to compare dimensions or to transfer a dimension for measurement by a graduated device
Micrometer
External micrometer, standard one-inch size with digital readout (photo courtesy of L. S. Starret Co.)
Calipers
Two sizes of outside calipers (photo courtesy of L. S. Starret Co.)
Mechanical Gages: Dial Indicators

Mechanical gages are designed to mechanically magnify the deviation to permit observation Most common instrument in this category is the dial indicator, which converts and amplifies the linear movement of a contact pointer into rotation of a dial The dial is graduated in small units such as 0.01 mm or 0.001 inch Applications: measuring straightness, flatness, parallelism, squareness, roundness, and runout
Dial Indicator
Dial Indicator showing dial and graduated face (photo courtesy of L. S. Starrett Co.)
Dial Indicator Setup to Measure Runout

As part is rotated about its center, variations in outside surface relative to center are indicated on the dial
Electronic Gages
Family of measuring and gaging instruments based on transducers capable of converting a linear displacement into an electrical signal Electrical signal is amplified and transformed into suitable data format such as a digital readout Applications of electronic gages have grown rapidly in recent years, driven by advances in microprocessor technology, and are gradually replacing many of the conventional devices
GO/NO-GO gages
So-named because one gage limit allows the part to be inserted while the other limit does not GO limit - used to check the dimension at its maximum material condition Minimum size for internal feature such as a hole Maximum size for external feature such as an outside diameter NO-GO limit - used to inspect the minimum material condition of the dimension in question
Snap Gage
Gaging the diameter of a part (difference in height of GO and NO-GO gage buttons is exaggerated)
Plug Gage
Gaging of a hole diameter (difference in diameters of GO and NO-GO plugs is exaggerated)
Measurement of Angles
Bevel protractor with Vernier scale (courtesy L. S. Starrett Co.)
Surfaces
Nominal surface designers intended surface contour of part, defined by lines in the engineering drawing Nominal surfaces appear as absolutely straight lines, ideal circles, round holes, and other edges and surfaces that are geometrically perfect Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the manufacturing processes used to make them Variety of processes result in wide variations in surface characteristics
Why Surfaces are Important

Aesthetic reasons Surfaces affect safety Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts
Surface Technology
Concerned with: Defining the characteristics of a surface Surface texture Surface integrity Relationship between manufacturing processes and characteristics of resulting surface
Metallic Part Surface

Magnified cross section of a typical metallic part surface
Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of the surface When highly magnified, the surface is anything but straight and smooth It has roughness, waviness, and flaws It also possesses a pattern and/or direction resulting from the mechanical process that produced it
Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations from the nominal surface of an object
Four Elements of Surface Texture

1. Roughness - small, finely-spaced deviations from nominal surface Determined by material characteristics and processes that formed the surface 2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing Waviness deviations occur due to work deflection, vibration, tooling, and similar factors Roughness is superimposed on waviness

3. Lay - predominant direction or pattern of the surface texture

4. Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally on the surface Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and similar defects in the surface Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they also affect surface integrity
Surface Roughness and Surface Finish

Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic based on roughness deviations Surface finish - a more subjective term denoting smoothness and general quality of a surface In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a synonym for surface roughness Both terms are within the scope of surface texture
Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over a specified surface length
Surface Roughness Equation

Arithmetic average (AA) based on absolute values of deviations, and is referred to as average roughness
y Ra = dx 0 Lm
where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation from nominal surface (absolute value); and Lm = specified distance over which the surface deviations are measured
Lm
Alternative Surface Roughness Equation

Approximation of previous equation is perhaps easier to comprehend
yi Ra i 1 n
where Ra has same meaning as above; yi = vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by subscript i; and n = number of deviations included in Lm
Cutoff Length
A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness may get included To deal with this problem, a parameter called the cutoff length is used as a filter to separate waviness from roughness deviations Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the surface A sampling distance shorter than the waviness eliminates waviness deviations and only includes roughness deviations
Surface Roughness Specification

Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings: (a) the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels
Surface Integrity
Surface texture alone does not completely describe a surface There may be metallurgical changes in the altered layer beneath the surface that can have a significant effect on a material's mechanical properties Surface integrity is the study and control of this subsurface layer and the changes in it that occur during processing which may influence the performance of the finished part or product
Surface Changes Caused by Processing

Surface changes are caused by the application of various forms of energy during processing Example: Mechanical energy is the most common form in manufacturing Processes include forging, extrusion, and machining Although its primary function is to change geometry of workpart, mechanical energy can also cause residual stresses, work hardening, and cracks in the surface layers
Energy Forms that Affect Surface Integrity

Mechanical energy Thermal energy Chemical energy Electrical energy
Surface Changes Caused by Mechanical Energy

Residual stresses in subsurface layer Example: bending of sheet metal Cracks - microscopic and macroscopic Example: tearing of ductile metals in machining Voids or inclusions introduced mechanically Example: centerbursting in extrusion Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening) Example: strain hardening of new surface in machining
Surface Changes Caused by Thermal Energy

Metallurgical changes (recrystallization, grain size changes, phase changes at surface) Redeposited or resolidified material (e.g., welding or casting) Heat-affected zone in welding (includes some of the metallurgical changes listed above) Hardness changes
Surface Changes by Caused Chemical Energy

Intergranular attack Chemical contamination Absorption of certain elements such as H and Cl in metal surface Corrosion, pitting, and etching Dissolving of microconstituents Alloy depletion and resulting hardness changes
Surface Changes Caused by Electrical Energy

Changes in conductivity and/or magnetism Craters resulting from short circuits during certain electrical processing techniques such as arc welding
Measurement of Surfaces
Two parameters of interest: Surface texture - geometry of the surface, commonly measured as surface roughness Surface roughness Surface integrity - deals with the material characteristics immediately beneath the surface and the changes to this subsurface that resulted from the processes that created it
Measurement of Surface Roughness

Three methods to measure surface roughness: 1. Subjective comparison with standard test surfaces Fingernail test 2. Stylus electronic instruments 3. Optical techniques
Stylus Instruments
Similar to the fingernail test, but more scientific In these electronic devices, a cone-shaped diamond stylus is traversed across test surface at slow speed As the stylus head is traversed horizontally, it also moves vertically to follow the surface deviations The vertical movement is converted into an electronic signal that can be displayed as Profile of the actual surface Average roughness value
Stylus Instruments
Stylus instrument traversing a standard test surface (courtesy George E. Kane Manufacturing Technology Laboratory, Lehigh University)
Stylus Traversing Surface

Stylus head traverses horizontally across surface, while stylus moves vertically to follow surface profile
Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes

Some manufacturing processes are inherently more accurate than others Most machining processes are quite accurate, capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm ( 0.002 in.) or better Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for machined parts must be specified
Surfaces and Manufacturing Processes

Some processes are inherently capable of producing better surfaces than others In general, processing cost increases with improvement in surface finish because additional operations and more time are usually required to obtain increasingly better surfaces Processes noted for providing superior finishes include honing, lapping, polishing, and superfinishing

MENG 3324: Manufacturing Processes, UTPB, ch05

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DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND SURFACES

Dimensions and Tolerances

Dimensions (ANSI Y14.5M-1982)

Tolerances (ANSI Y14.5M-1982):

Accuracy and Precision

Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages

Precision Gage Blocks

Measurement of Linear Dimensions

Mechanical Gages: Dial Indicators

Dial Indicator Setup to Measure Runout

Why Surfaces are Important

Metallic Part Surface

Four Elements of Surface Texture

Four Elements of Surface Texture

Four Elements of Surface Texture

Surface Roughness and Surface Finish

Surface Roughness Equation

Alternative Surface Roughness Equation

Surface Roughness Specification

Surface Changes Caused by Processing

Energy Forms that Affect Surface Integrity

Surface Changes Caused by Mechanical Energy

Surface Changes Caused by Thermal Energy

Surface Changes by Caused Chemical Energy

Surface Changes Caused by Electrical Energy

Measurement of Surface Roughness

Stylus Traversing Surface

Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes

Surfaces and Manufacturing Processes

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