State when the emission spectrum of hydrogen was

discovered.

Outline the apparatus and findings of this experiment.
When: mid 19
th
century

Apparatus:











Explanation:
When exited, H
2
molecules dissociate into H atoms
These atoms emit discrete colours of visible light


Define electromagnetic spectrum.

What speed do all oscillating waves travel in a vacuum?

Outline the electromagnetic spectrum.

Define and describe the visible region/visible spectrum.


Electromagnetic Spectrum: the complete range of electromagnetic radiation that travels through
space as energy in the form of oscillating waves

Speed of oscillating waves in a vacuum: 3.0 10
8
ms
-1


The electromagnetic spectrum:



Visible region/spectrum:
the region of the
electromagnetic spectrum we
are able to detect suing our
eyes
How ware waves characterized?
Waves are characterized by:

Wavelength () Refers to the distance between two identical points on adjacent waves
Often expressed in nanometers (nm; 1 nm = 1.0 10
-9
m)

Frequency () Refers to the number of times that one complete wave passes by a point in
space in a given amount of time
Usually expressed in cycles per seconds (Hertz or Hz)











*Note: a wave on an axis is often seen as a sine wave and thus has alternating phases (+ and -)

What is amplitude?

Outline the relationship between wave amplitude and light
intensity.

What is the relationship between wavelength and
frequency?
Amplitude: the height of the wave
is an indication of the intensity of the wave

Relationship between wave amplitude and light intensity:









Relationship between wavelength and frequency:

OR

Based on experimental results
Wavelengths short it will go by a fixed point more often in one second (higher frequency)
Wavelengths long it will go by a fixed point less often in one second (lower frequency)














v =
c

v = c
Outline diffraction.

Explain interference.
Diffraction: the phenomenon in which after a wave as been propagated through a small hole
(similar in size to its wavelength) it expands to fill all the space on the other side of
the barrier






Interference: the process in which waves interact.

Constructive Interference: when two waves of the same phase (peaks and troughs line up
exactly) and with the same frequency interact
this results in a wave with an amplitude which is the sum of the two
waves

Destructive Interference: when two waves of opposite phase with the same amplitude and
frequencies interact
results in a wave with no amplitude at all
the energy of the light does not disappear

Outline the Two Slit Experiment.
1. When light is passed through two separated, closely spaced slits of the same size
2. There are two beams of light on the other size of the barrier undergoing diffraction
3. This results in an interference pattern
4. This pattern presents itself as alternate bands of light
5. The light is the result of constructive interference
6. The dark is the result of destructive interference
Outline the relationship between intensity and wavelength
of light emitted by a heated body.
*Note: wavelength of the radiation emitted depends on the temperature












Notice:
Radiation of all types vanish as the wavelength approaches zero
Classical physics thought that the intensity would increase without bounds as the wavelength
decreased (now referred to the ultraviolet catastrophe)
How did Max Planck (in 1900) rectify the ultraviolet
catastrophe.

Define the energy of each quantum.
Departed from the belief that everything in nature must continuously change.
Postulated that atoms vibrating with a frequency could emit radiation only in discrete
packages (called quanta) of energy

Energy of each quantum:

= frequency of vibration
h = 6.626 10
-34
Js
-1


Therefore, the energy emitted by an atom can only have the following values:

E
n
= nE where n = 1, 2, 3

Spacing between the nearest possible values:

E = E
n+1
E
n
= h
As the frequency of atomic vibration increases, spacing between allowed energy values also
increases
Number of quanta whose energy falls within a fixed range decreases with
Less and less radiation exits at higher frequencies




E = hv
Explain the experiment that displays the photoelectric
effect.
The experiment:

Monochromatic light is shone on a metal
Depending on the frequency of light, an electron can be ejected from the metal
If metal is placed in a chamber with a positive terminal, a current flow can be observed
Current is due to electrons being ejected from the metal and travelling to the positive
electrode
Observed that not all frequencies of light resulted in this effect






The Results:
No minimum intensity was required
Minimum threshold frequency was however
After this frequency was reached, any frequency higher would = an electron ejection


How and by who was the photoelectric effect explained?
Albert Einstein using Plancks idea of quantized vibrations explained it.

Suggested that a beam of light was actually a huge number of tiny packets, or particles called
photons

Each photon contains a discrete quantity of energy which is related to the frequency of
radiation (light)

This is why we refer to light as being quantized

Photons of light with a certain frequency posses enough energy to eject an electron

If a photon does not posses this energy, the electron is not ejected and the current does not
flow

How do Plancks constant and the properties of waves
relate?
They can be combined to calculate the energy of the photon:



Shows the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy possessed by the photons
Inverse relationship: longer wavelength = lower energy
IMPORTANT LESSONS: Light may behave as a wave (continuous) or as a particle (discrete)
Energy of a photon = dependent on the frequency of light

How this effect depends on the wavelength and frequency of the light:






E = hv =
hc

What is the Rydberg equation and what does it represent?

They Rydberg equation (found by Balmer in 1885 and then adapted by Rydberg) demonstrates
the mathematical relationship between the difference discrete wavelengths of light that are
emitted from an exited metal. It is modeled by the equation:






*Note: m and n are integers
m 1 and n > m.
m defines the energy level that the electron is falling from
R
H
is the Rydsberg constant (1,097 10
7
m
-1
)



1

= R
H
1
m
2

1
n
2
|
\

|
.
|
What is the Balmer equation?

What is the Lyman equation?
Balmer equation:



Lyman equation:
The Balmer series only considered that excited Hatoms emitted visible light
Harvard physicist Theodore Lyman discovered that exited H atoms also emitted ultraviolet
light
The m becomes a 1
The wavelengths emitted that are ultraviolet are known as the Lyman series


Paschen series:
Found in 1908
Paschen discovered excited H atoms also emitted infrared light
The m in the equation becomes a 3
The wavelengths emitted that are infrared are known as the Paschen series

1

= R
H
1
2
2

1
n
2
|
\

|
.
|

1

= R
H
1
1
2

1
n
2
|
\

|
.
|

1

= R
H
1
3
2

1
n
2
|
\

|
.
|
By who, when and how was the question : Why do
hydrogen atoms emit light at specific wavelengths?
answered.
Who: Niels Bohr
When: 1913









How:
Suggested the atom look like
Electrons moving in orbit
Suggested the existence of multiple orbits
The energy of each orbit is quantized
This means the energy levels of the electron orbits have a discrete set of values
Each orbit was assigned an energy level, an integer n
As n increases, the energy difference between it and the n level is less than the energy between
it and the previous level
Explain Bohrs theory in terms of the hydrogen emission
spectrum.
Normally H e
-
reside in the orbit of lowest energy (n = 1)

Ground state: orbit of lowest energy

The e
-
can absorb energy and be promoted to a higher energy level

When e
-
drop back to ground state, light is emitted

Light emissions wavelength corresponds exactly to the energy difference between the higher
and lower orbital

Because there is an entire population of H atoms, an assortment of discrete wavelengths are
emitted giving rise to its unique emission spectrum

The Paschen, Balmer and Lyman series are due to transitions from n = 3, n = 2 and n = 1



Address the deficiencies in Bohrs explanation of
hydrogens emission spectrum.
1. Strictly dealth with e
-
as particles.
Not entirely correct as e
-
can also behave as waves.

2. Spectrum was enlarged and scrutinized.
It was found that each line is actually split into two closely spaced lines.
This splitting (fine structure) provides evidence for the magnetic and wave-like properties of
electrons.



3. Did not explain relative intensities of the emission lines.
i.e.: Why transitions from one specific higher levels to a specific lower level where more
probable than others).

4. Failed miserably when applied to atoms with more than one electron around the nucleus.
Thus: the concept of e
-
circling the nucleus in fixed orbits was flawed.
What did Louis de Broglie suggest in 1924?
That tiny particles, such as electrons, could exhibit wave behavior in addition to particle behavior.

He derived the equation relating mass and velocity of the particle to its wavelength:




Restriction to this relationship:
h is very small

this means that both the mass and velocity of the particle must be very small

if they are too large, the wavelength will be two small to be measurable

we can only see wave properties for very small particles (such as electrons)


=
h
mv
Describe the proof for Broglies proposal provided by
Davisson and Germer.
Date: 1927

Observed that a beam of electrons passed through two closely spaced slits produced
interference pattern identical to that observed for light

Mimicked results of two slit experiment

Result:
Describe the main difference between the quantum
mechanical model and Bohrs model.

Outline the two types of waves.
Main Difference:
Quantum mechanic model takes a wave approach rather than a particle approach to atomic
structure
Electrons are treated as waves bound to the positive nucleus at the center of the atom


Waves:
A waves a disturbance that travels through space and time
Usually waves are accompanied by transfers of energy
Two types of waves: travelling and standing


Travelling wave: a disturbance that propagates in some direction
Example: water ripples

Standing wave: a disturbance that repeats itself in time with no net translational motion
fixed at both ends and can only oscillate at certain discrete frequencies
contain nodes: points that remain fixed in space
Examples: a guitar string

Describe wave patterns (wavefunctions).
*Note: the following diagram is a simplification; waves exist on three dimensions (xyz), not just 2













4
th
, 5
th
, 6
th
harmonics exist as well
Each harmonic (frequency) refers to a discrete energy level
Thus, the energies of the waves are quantized (only certain energies allowed)
At any moment, the wave or parts of the wave are either above (positive phase) or below
(negative phase) the x-axis
(x) = 0 at nodes. This occurs when the wave switches from one phase to others at points
either than the two fixed ends.

1
(x) first wave pattern:
fundamental frequency
first harmonic

2
(x) second wave pattern:
twice the fundamental frequency
second harmonic

3
(x) third wave pattern:
three times the fundamental frequency
third harmonic
What did Erwin Schrdingers equation show?

Define orbital in terms of the quantum mechanical model.
Made two years after Broglies proposal.
Describes the shape and time evolution of de Broglie waves.
Allows one to predict the probability of finding an electron at a certain position in 3-
dimensional space

The following for of the equation solves for an electron in the x dimension in 3D space
m = mass
E = total energy
V = potential energy
h = Plancks constant
= wavefunction


Important:
KILL the Bohr image of orbitals
Electrons do not orbit the nucleus in the quantum mechanical model
The probability space around the nucleus is whats known as an orbital

Orbital: specifies an area of space where the electron is most likely to be


0 =
d
2
+
dx
2
+
8t
2
m(E V)
h
2
+
!!! You do not need to
know or use this
equation!!!
How are the orbitals of an electron in an atom described?

What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle
How we describe the orbital of an electron in an atom:
We used 4 quantum numbers
We designated these numbers: n, l, m
l
and m
s

We obtain these numbers by solving the Schrdinger equation for the different wavefunctions

Pauli Exclusion Principle:
Formulated by Wolfgang Pauli
Date: 1925

No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum
numbers




Explain the Principal Quantum Number (n).
Describes the type of wavefunction thus, the number of nodes present in the wave
Corresponds to the number of nodes present in the wave +1

Example:

1
(x) is assigned n = 1

1
(x) has no nodes

As the value of n increase, the electron is higher in energy due to the increasing frequency of
the wave
Electrons at higher n values have a greater probability of being found further away from the
nucleus
As n increases, so does the energy and size of an orbital

Historically:
n number labels the electron shell
Explain the Azimuthal Quantum Number (l).
AKA: the orbital angular momentum quantum number
Describes the angular moment of an electron in an orbital the shape of the orbital
Values permitted range from 0 to (n1).

Example:
If n = 1, only 0 can equal l

More shapes are possible at higher n levels because the orbital sizes increase with increasing n
l values are also referred to as sublevels
l values of 0, 1, 2 and 3 represent shapes known as sharp, principal, diffuse and fine
Names derived from spectroscopy


Uses spdf designation for l values.
Explain the Magnetic Quantum Number (m
1
).
Refers to the orientation of an orbital on the xyz coordinate system
the number of possible direction is depended on the value of l
Values of m
1
are integers ranging for l through zero to +l

Example:
l = 3, then m
1
= -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

Each unique combination of n, l and m
1
represents one orbital
Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons
All electrons of the same n and l have the same energy
Orbitals that have the same energy are said to be degenerate

Example:
At n = 3 we can have l = 2 which gives rise to 5 m
1
values (-2, -1, 0, +1, +2)
Therefore, there are 5 d orbitals at n = 3 and they all have the same energy


Summary of Quantum Numbers
n, l, m
1
and Maximum Number
of Electrons in Atomic Orbitals
Explain the Spin Quantum Number (m
s
).
Associated with spin and magnetism (properties that electrons posses)
When an electron is spinning about an axis in a specific direction, a magnetic field in a
direction perpendicular to the spin is generated
Two possible states are spin up and spin down




Two values of m
s
= + and (does not mater which is spin up or down)
Since orbital's can hold two electrons, Paulis Exclusion Principle indicates that an orbital filled
must have electrons of opposite spins (different m
s
numbers)

Usual representation:

Electrons with parallel spins Electrons with opposite spins
Relate wavelengths and orbitals in terms of positioning.
Wave functions are used to describe the energy and/or locations of electrons
Though we simplify to the one-dimensional wavefunction (x), the wavefunction is actually in
three dimensions, hence (x, y, z)
An orbital is a mathematical plot of the corresponding one-electron wavefunction in 3D space
it indicates the region of 3D space where the electron is most likely to be found

With one-dimensional wavefunctions:
the probability of finding an electron at a certain distance along the x-axis can be predicted by
plotting electron density as a function of distance x
the electron density plot, can be derived from the square of the wavefunction
Explain the proper notation that is required in order to
visualize orbitals in 3D.
Note that only one subscript (n) was used to label the following wavefunction:







To visualize the orbitals on a 3D plane we need to specify two addition quantum numbers:
l and m
1

An orbital is specified as:
nlm
1

Using the above example:
At n = 1, only l = 0 and m
1
= 0 are allowed
This means there is only one orbital (1s)
The wavefunction can be described as
1s
or
100

This type of wave function has a spherical shape whos center corresponds to the location of
the nucleus as well as the origin on the xyz coordinate system