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Metallurgy

METALS
Metals are composed of elements having good electrical & thermal conductivity

Important properties
Mechanical properties Electrical properties Magnetic properties Thermal properties Chemical properties Physical properties.

Requirement of engineering materials:

Fabrication: Able to get shaped easily. Service requirements: Good strength, wear and corrosion resistance Economic requirements: Made available with minimum overall cost

Selection of material
Properties of the materials in relation to their indented use.

Factors for selection the material

Ease of availability Economy Capacity to meet service conditions Ease of handling Durability

Different materials
Materials for high & low temperature Tools steels Bearing materials Spring materials Die casting materials Magnetic materials Metals for nuclear energy.

Metallurgy
It is the science and technology of metals. It deals about Extraction of metals from their ores. Refining of crude metal

 Production of alloys study of their constitution, structure and properties. The relation ship of physical and mechanical properties. Heat treatment of metal and alloys.

Classification of metallurgy
Metallurgy is divided in to two major groups Extractive Metallurgy Deals with liberation of metals by various chemical processes from ores. Refining of metals
It includes mining, concentration, extraction and refining of metals and alloys.

Physical Metallurgy
It deals with metal and alloys that have been refined. The nature, structure and physical properties of metal and alloys Heat treatment

Both extractive and physical metallurgy are subdivided in to ferrous and non ferrous.

Structure of solid
Structure:The arrangement and disposition of atoms with in a crystal.
Crystal: It is a solid, whose constituent atoms are arranged in a systematic geometric pattern.

Metallic crystal
Each atom attracts as many neighboring atoms as it can. The result is closely packed structure with strong bond and density.

Space lattice
It is three-dimensional network of imaginary lines connecting the atoms. The atoms arrange themselves in a distinct pattern in space and have identical surroundings.

UNIT CELL
The unit cell of a crystal structure is the smallest group of atoms possessing the symmetry of the crystal. Which when repeated in all directions with the help of crystal lattice.

Most of the metal crystallize are in one of the three structures. ie BCC, FCC and HCP

BCC
Atoms are positioned one each at eight corners and at the body center of the cube. The corner atoms are shared by eight neighboring units. Eight units meet at each corner. Share of each corner = 1 / 8. Effective no. of atoms = 8 X 1/ 8 + 1 = 2 Atoms.

FCC
Atoms are positioned one each at eight corners with six more atoms located at six face centers. Share of corner atom= 1 / 8. Face centered atom is shared by two neighboring cells Effective share = 6 X 1/ 2 = 3

 Effective no. of atoms in FCC crystal= 8 X 1/ 8 + 6 X 1 / 2 = 4. Packing efficiency = 0.74 Only 74% of volume of FCC unit cell is occupied by nuclei and inner electrons. The valance electrons form an electron cloud, which fill the remaining volume.

HCP Crystal.
Six atoms at six corners of two hexagonal faces and one each at their face centers. Three more atoms in the middle plane of the hexagonal crystal. Effective no. of atoms in HCP crystal= 12 X 1 /6 + 2 X 1 / 2 + 3 = 6. Packing efficiency = 0.74.

OTHER RARE METALLIC CRYSTALS

Tetragonal Orthorhombic Rhombohedral crystals.

Structure

Effective atoms

Packing efficiency

Metals

BCC

0.681

Fe, W, Cr, V, Na, Nb &Mo. Ag,Al,Cu,Ni & Pb Be, Cd, Mg,Ti,Zn & Zr.

FCC HCP

0.74

0.74

Metallic bonding
The atoms in a metal are held together by metallic bonding. A metal crystal has an array of positive ions with a common pool of electrons. All atoms contribute their outmost electron. These free electrons drift in all direction through the crystal to any part. The attractive force between positive ion and negatively charged free electrons binds the metal atoms together in crystal.

 Free electrons carry both electric current and heat through the crystal and responsible for electrical and thermal conductivity of metal. The bonds are non directional There are no constraints about bond angles. An atom is bonded by many neighbors.

 The metallic ions move easily with respect to each other, leading to high plasticity of metals. The valancy electrons are not bond to any particular pair of atoms, but move freely throughout the metal and form negative electron cloud. The opaque lustre of metal is due to reflection of light by free electrons

IMPERFECTIONS
Ideal crystal: Atomic arrangement is perfect, regular and continuous throughout. Real crystal: In cast or weld objects, lattice distortion, various imperfections, irregularities are generally present. Physical and chemical properties are affected by the imperfections in the crystal.

IMPERFECTIONS
It is due to disruptions in the space lattice.
It is affecting metals mechanical strength, conductivity and chemical reaction.

EFFECT OF IMPERFECTIONS
Study of imperfections has the following purpose. A better understanding on How they affect metal properties. Exploring the possibilities of minimizing or elimination of the defects.

Imperfection account for

Flow and fracture characteristics Crystal growth Creep characteristics of real metal and alloys. Conductivity Annealing Oxidation and corrosion Yield strength, fracture strength and plasticity etc.

Dislocations are caused by

Growth accidents Thermal stresses. Phase transformation Segregation of solute atoms causing mismatch.

Dislocations
It can be either perpendicular or parallel to the slip plane. The dislocations interact with each other during plastic deformation. Dislocation multiply during process of deformation and pile up at the grain boundaries. This reduces the strength of single crystal below the theoretical value.

Imperfections are classified as

Point defects Line defects Surface or plane defects Stacking defects. Volumetric defects

POINT DEFECTS
Vacancies Interstitials Impurities Line defects Edge dislocation Screw dislocation

Planar, surface, grain boundaries defects. Grain boundaries Tilt boundaries Twin boundaries
Volumetric defects Cracks, shrinkage, inclusions

POINT DEFECTS
They are localized. Absence of a matrix atom called as vacancy. Leaving of atoms from their regular positions. Jumping to the surface of the crystal or interstitial position.

Vacancies
It implies an unoccupied atom position within the crystal lattice
Neighboring atoms tend to be closed together, there by distorting the lattice planes.

Causes
Imperfect packing during original crystallization. Solidification too fast Jumping out of atoms due to thermal vibrations at elevated temperatures. Heating, plastic deformation, bombardment of a metal with high energy atoms.

 Point defects cause local distortion Displacement around the vacancy occurs only first two layers of neighbor atoms. Fraction of displacement occurs only to interatomic distance. Point defects affect physical properties of metal.

INTERSTITIAL ATOMS
More energy is required to introduce. Rare in metals Presence of foreign atom in place of matrix atom- substitutional impurity. A foreign atom occupying a vacant position- interstitial atom defect. A atom displaced from its normal position with in the lattice- self interstitial defect.

INTERSTITIAL DEFECTS
An atom displaced from regular site in to interstitial site. Interstitial impurity: It is a small atom occupying an interstitial void space between parent atoms of the crystal. Substitutional impurity: It is an impurity atom that has substituted from one of the parent atoms on a regular atomic site.

 Impurities like slag occupying the void space in the crystal without dislodging any of the parent atoms is called interstitial defect. It affects thermal and electrical conductivity of metal and alloys.

LINER IMPERFECTIONS
They are called dislocations. Dislocation is defined as a disturbed region between two substantially perfect parts of a crystal. The upper part of the crystal is displaced with respect to lower part by one interatomic distance.

Line dislocation
A part of the plane of atom is displaced from its symmetrically stable position in the array. The surrounding structure is with an extensive elastic strain field and its associated stress. This dislocation is responsible for slip.

The dislocation is of two types.

1. 2. Edge dislocation. Screw dislocation.

EDGE DISLOCATION
When a row of atoms is either removed from a lattice or displaced at a unit distance an edge dislocation is formed. The upper part of the crystal is displaced with respect to lower part by one atomic distance.

 Edge dislocation glides out and produces a slip step of one atom width at the edge of the crystal. Slip have parallel plane. Speed of movement is more. Less fore is required

 In edge dislocation an extra row of atoms either above or below the slip plane. It is the distortion region around the edge of the incomplete plane in the crystal.

Screw dislocation
It is characterized by a shear distortion. It is dislocation of continuous helical plane of atoms. More force is required. Speed of movement is less

 In general the dislocation in real crystals are some combination of edge and screw types. These are called mixed dislocations. If the growth of the crystal is done very slowly and carefully and volume of the grown crystal is small the formation of dislocations can be prevented.

Dislocations are formed during

1. Solidification of metals.

2. Plastic deformation 3. Phase transformation 4.Slip of atomic planes one over other.

 Dislocations attract foreign atoms in to their zones. Dislocations lower the level of plastic distortion. In general dislocations in real crystal are combination of edge and screw type. They are called mixed dislocations.

SURFACE DEFECTS
Abrupt ending of periodicity of crystal lattice. Surface atoms have neighbors only on one side, while the atoms inside the crystals have neighbors on both sides. Affects mechanical, electrical and chemical properties

Grain boundaries:
Atomic packing is imperfect. There is a transition zone in between two adjacent grains. Transition zone is not aligned with any of the neighbors

 Tilt boundary: tilting of grain boundary with an angular orientation less than 10 degress.
TWIN BOUNDARY: It separates the crystal in to two parts having same orientation. They like mirror image of each other.

Stacking defects
Dissimilarity in stacking sequences of closed packed planes. One atom layer to be out of sequence relative to the atoms of layers of above and below. Discrepancy in packing sequence, though all lattice sites are occupied. It is mostly found in deformed metals

 Imperfections do not always affect the properties of the material adversely. In carbon steel, interstitial carbon atom which may be thought as imperfection in the cubic crystal structure of iron, add tremendously to its strength.

ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Elasticity: Ability of the material to regain its original shape and size after removal of forces with in elastic limits. Plasticity: Ability of the material to get deformed without rupture during application of load.

DEFORMATION
The change produced in a metal without any fracture even after removal of external load is called deformation. When materials are stressed they get deformed. Change in volume of crystals due to temperature gradients also leads to deformation Distortion changes size, shape and structure of a body due to the action of applied forces.

Stage of deformation

Elastic deformation Permanent deformation

Fracture.

Types of deformation
Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

Elastic deformation
It is only temporary. No permanent changes in the size, shape, structure and properties of the material. A mono crystal is stretched, the distance between the atoms increases. If the load is released the displaced atoms are returned to their initial equilibrium position by the forces of attraction of repulsion and the crystal reacquires their initial shape and size

 When the shear stress exceeds certain value( Elastic limit) the deformation becomes irreversible. When shear load is removed, only plastic component is eliminated but part of the deformation remains. A metal piece becomes slightly longer as a result of elongation of unit cell in the direction of tensile load. During plastic deformation, the strain in the metal piece is directionally proportional to the stress.

Plastic deformation depends up on

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Microstructure Grain size Composition Applied stress Temperature Strain rate.

Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation follows elastic deformation. If the stress in the metal crosses the elastic limit, plastic deformation takes place. It involves distortion of crystal and micro structure. Example: bending, drawing, rolling, forging and extrusion

 In a crystal plastic deformation can occur by slip or twining. During plastic deformation there is no change in crystal structure or the lattice parameters. Only the no. of imperfection increases.

Plastic deformation mechanisms

Slip: Slip is a mechanism of deformation where in one part of crystal, glides over another part along certain planes. It occurs at higher temperature and lower strain rates. Atoms move no. of interatomic distances relative to their initial positions.

 Magnitude of displacement is one full interatomic distance. Orientation of displaced region is same as undeformed region. Slip may takes place more than one plane or direction depending up on structure of crystal. It is a function of temperature and composition.

TWINING
It occurs at lower temperature and higher strain rates. Atoms moves only a fraction of an inter atomic distance relative to their neighbors. Orientation of the twinned region is different from untwined region.

Properties of the material

Specific characteristics of the material.
Predicts the behavior to the material under different conditions.

 Elasticity: Ability to regain its original shape and size after deformation with in elastic limit. Ductile: Deformation produced in a material at the breaking point before rupture. Plasticity: Ability to retain the permanent deformation even after the load is removed.

 Brittleness: Ability to break in to pieces when subjected to shock. Toughness: Ability to resist fracture due to high impact loads. Stiffness: Ability to resist deformation. Tenacity: Ability to resist fracture due to high tensile load.

 Resilience: Ability to store energy, shock and impacts. Hardness: Property of material, which resist abrasion, indentations and cutting. Hardenability: Degree of hardness, which can be imparted to a metal by process of heat treatment.

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